第一章:综合语与分析语
综合语的特征是运用形态变化来表示语法关系。Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary 给综合语定义为:A synthetic language is “characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships”. 拉丁语、德语及古英语等都属于这类语言。
分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关系。The Random House College Dictionary 给分析语法定义为:An analytic language is “characterized by a relatively frequent use if function words, auxiliary verbs, and changes in word order to express syntactic relations, rather than of inflected forms”. 汉语是典型的分析语。
现代英语是从古英语发展出来的,仍然保留着综合语的某些特征,但也具有分析语的特征:有形态变化,但不象典型的综合语那么复杂。词序比汉语灵活,但相对固定;虚词很多,用得也相当频繁。现代英语运用遗留下来的形态变化形式(hereditary inflections)、相对固定的词序及丰富的虚词来表达语法关系,因此属于综合—分析语(synthetic-analytic language)。
形态变化、词序和虚词是表达语法意义的三大手段。这些语法手段在英汉两种语言中具有不同的特征。此外,英语采用拼音文字,句有语调(intonation);汉字绝大多数为形声字,字有声调(tone)。英汉表达方式的差异与这些因素均有密切的关系。
一,英语有形态变化,汉语没有严格意义的形态变化。
所谓形态变化,即词的形式变化,主要包括以下两方面:
1.构词形态,即构词作用的词缀变化(affixation),包括大量的前缀(prefix)和后缀(suffix)。英语的词缀灵活多变,常常一缀多义,不仅规模大,数量多,而且种类齐全。汉语利用词缀构词仍处在发展中,不论规模、数量或种类,都不及英语。
英语可以运用丰富的词缀构词造句,如:
He moved astonishingly fast.
He moved with astonishing rapidity.
His movements were astonishingly rapid.
His rapid movements astonished us.
His movements astonished us by their rapidity.
The rapidity of his movements was astonishing.
The rapidity with which he moved astonished us.
He astonished us by moving rapidly.
He astonished us by his rapid movements.
He astonished us by the rapidity of his movements.
(O. Jesperson)
他行进的速度快得令人惊讶。
他行进速度之快,令人惊讶。
他的快速行进使我们惊讶。
我们对他的快速行进感到惊讶。
英语通过词性变化,改变词性,用这些词灵活组句,可以表达一个几乎相同的意思;汉语没有词性变化,就难以用这么多的句式来表达同样的意思。英汉互译时,往往要改变词性、转换词类,才能通顺地表达愿意。
2.构词形态,即表达语法意义的词形变化。如:
我给他一本书。I gave him a book.
他已给我两本书。He has given me two books.
他爸爸常常给他一些书。His father often gives him books.
汉语的“我”、“他”没有形式变化,同一个词可以表示主格、宾格或所有格;“书”没有形式的变化,可以表示单数或复数;动词“给”也没有形式变化,可以表示现在、过去或已完成的行为。但英语对应的词I, me, him, his, book, books, gives, gave, has given却有形式变化。这类变化,往往是英语初学者首先遇到的难点之一。
英语的动词、助动词和情态动词常常结合起来,运用其形态变化,表示动词的时态、语态和语气。汉语没有这类变化,有时虽然可借助一些半独立的词语来表示,但多数是隐含在句中或上下文里的。如:
- They told me that by the end of the year they would have been working together for thirty years.
他们告诉我,到(那年)年底,他们在一起工作就有三十年了。
- New factories are being built all over the country.
全国到处都在兴建工厂。
- During the wartime, years like these would have meant certain death for many people. Many would have become beggars and others would have been compelled to sell their children.
战争期间(要是)碰到这样的年景,很多人肯定会死去,很多人会逃荒要饭,很多人会被迫卖儿卖女。
现代英语的形态变化主要是动词的变化(conjugation)和名词、代词、形容词和副词的变化(declension),以及上述的词缀变化。这些变化有:性(gender)、数(number)、格(case)、时(tense)、体(aspect)、语态(voice)、语气(mood)、比较级(degree of comparison)、人称(person) 和词性(parts of speech)等。有了这些变化,一个词(或词组)常常可以表达几种语法意义,例如从词的形态可以判别它的词类、在句中的作用、与其他词的关系等。汉语没有形态变化,一般要通过借助词序、安排词序、隐含意义或其他办法分别表达语法意义:
1) Thus encouraged, they made a still bolder plan for the next year.
(由于)受到了这种鼓励,他们为第二年制定了一个更大胆的计划。(过去分词短语thus encouraged 含被动意义,作状语,表示原因;形容词比较级bolder含有与过去相比较的意义)
2) I regret not having taken her advice.
我后悔没有听她的劝告。(not… advice是动名词完成体的否定式,作动词的宾语)
3) The book is said to have been translated into many languages.
据说此书已译成多种语言。(双重被动式,其中to have been translated之一是不定式完成体的被动态)
现代英语的形态变化虽然不如典型的综合语那样复杂,但却使用十分频繁。H. Sweet认为 “The English inflections, few as their number is, are an integral and essential part of the language…. The excessive frequency of these forms gives them great morphological weight…. We cannot but accept Sayce’s dictum.—‘once inflectional, always inflectional’. Hence while English appears as almost uninflectional when compared with such a language as Latin, it appears in the opposite light when compared with an isolating language such as Chinese.”
严格说来,汉语没有形态变化。汉语的助词(如“们”表示复数)、动词助词(如“着”、“了”、“过”表示动词的体)与结构助词(如“的”、“地”、“得”表示定语、状语与补语)虽然似英语的形态变化,但这些成分的使用在汉语里常常缺乏普遍性;有的场合一定要用,有的场合可用可不用,有的场合甚至不能用。英语形态变化的使用确有严格的规则,往往带有强制性。例如,汉语可以说“学生们”,但在“两个学生”、“他们是学生”中,却不需要加“们”,而英语的“student”却都加“-s”。又如,“我们(的)学校”(our school)、“你看见(了)没有?”(have you see it?) 中的“的”和“了”可用可不用,而英语相应的词却有形态变化。再如,“着”表示动作正在进行,但“He is dying”却不能译为“他正在死着”,而应为“他快要死了”。
二.英语词序比较灵活,汉语词序相对固定。
形态变化与词序有密切的关系。形态变化越多的语言,词序越灵活,反之亦然。拉丁语是典型的形态语言,词即使移了位置,也可以从其形态标志识别其语法意义,而词序很灵活。例如,拉丁语的主语和宾语有不同的形式,其位置可以改变而意义却完全相同,Amor vincit omnia=Omnia vincit amor,意思都是“爱能征服一切”(love conquers all things)。汉语是典型的分析语,词没有形态标志,位置不能随便移动,词语之间的关系主要通过安排词序及使用虚词来表达。例如上句,若把词序改变成“一切能征服爱”,则意思完全相反。英语属综合—分析语,词序不如拉丁语灵活,但也不如汉语固定。例如上句,若把词序改变为“All things conquers love”,从主语(things)与动词的形态不能保持一致(S-V concord)判断,此句为语法病句。它不能象拉丁语那样改变词序而仍然表达相同的意思,又不能象汉语句那样改变词序表达不同的意思。英语有部分形态变化,词序改变了,可以凭借这些形态标志判断句子是否合乎语法,但形态变化又不如拉丁语齐全,词序不能任意改变。英语的语法意义可以通过词序或虚词来表达,在许多情况下也可以用形态标志来表达。形态、词序和虚词这三大语法手段互相配合或交替运用,使英语词语和从句的位置比汉语灵活。
1.英汉句子的主要成分如主语、谓语动词、宾语或表语的词序基本上相同,一般说来,英汉的排列顺序都是:主---动---宾(表)。但与汉语相比,英语词序倒置的现象比较多。H. Fowler 将英语词序的倒装想象归为九类:
1) Interrogative inversion (疑问倒装)
What in the world do you mean? (C. Dickens) 你的意思究竟是什么呀?
2) Imperative inversion (命令倒装)
Come you, everybody! 大家都来吧!
3) Exclamatory inversion (惊叹倒装)
What a beautiful voice you have! (B. Shaw) 你有多么好的嗓音啊!
4) Hypothetical inversion (假设倒装)
A pair of black eyes might have done some execution had they been placed in a smoother face. (W. Thacheray)
一对乌溜溜的眼睛如果长在一付再细净写的脸庞上,就足以迷人的了。
execution:
#archaic : effective or destructive action
his brandished steel, which smoked with bloody execution—William Shakespeare
—usually used with do
as soon as day came, we went out to see what execution we had done—Daniel Defoe
5) Balance inversion (平衡倒装)
Inexpressible was the astonishment of the little party when they returned to find that Mr. Pickwick had disappeared. (C. Dickens)
当这一伙人回来发现皮克威克先生不见了的时候,那惊愕之态简直无法形容。
6) Link inversion (衔接倒装)
Such are the rewards that always crown virtue. (Shakespeare)
这样的报酬常常是美德所应该得到的。
~ sth (with sth) to make sth complete or perfect, especially by adding an achievement, a success, etc. (尤指通过增添成就、成功等)使圆满,使完美
The award of the Nobel Prize has crowned a glorious career in physics.
荣获诺贝尔奖使其物理学研究的辉煌事业达到了顶点。
Their efforts were finally crowned with success.
他们的努力终于取得圆满成功。
7) Signpost inversion (点题倒装)
By negation is meant the denial or absence of facts. 否定是指否认事实或不存在的事实。
denial:
a statement that says sth is not true or does not exist 否认;否定
the prisoner’s repeated denials of the charges against him
囚犯再三否认对他的指控
The terrorists issued a denial of responsibility for the attack.
恐怖分子发表声明,否认对这次袭击负责。
an official denial that there would be an election before the end of the year
对年底前将进行选举的正式否认
8) Negative inversion (否定倒装)
Not a finger did I lay on him. (R. Quick)
lay a finger on sb
(usually used in negative sentences 通常用于否定句) to touch sb with the intention of hurting them physically 触碰,动…的一根毫毛(意欲伤害某人)
I never laid a finger on her.
我从来没有碰过她。
9) Metrical inversion (韵律倒装)
Good friend for Jesus’ sake, forbear
To dig the dust enclosed here,
Blessed be he that spares these stones
spare
to make sth such as time or money available to sb or for sth, especially when it requires an effort for you to do this 抽出;拨出;留出;匀出
~ sth/sb
I’d love to have a break, but I can’t spare the time just now.
我是想休息一下,可眼下找不出时间。
Could you spare one of your staff to help us out?
你能不能从你手下抽一个人过来帮帮我们?
~ sth/sb for sb/sth
We can only spare one room for you.
我们只能给你腾出一个房间。
You should spare a thought for (= think about) the person who cleans up after you.
你应该为随后打扫的人着想啊。
~ sb sth
Surely you can spare me a few minutes?
你应该能为我空出几分钟时间吧?
And curst be he that moves stones. (Shakespeare)
Note
cursed: adjective
variants or less commonly curst
curse:
to say rude things to sb or think rude things about sb/sth 咒骂;诅咒;在心里诅咒
~ sb/sth/yourself
She cursed her bad luck.
她骂自己运气不好。
~ sb/sth/yourself for sth
He cursed himself for his stupidity.
他咒骂自己愚蠢。
好朋友呀,看在耶穌的份上,请你住手
别来挖这块土丘。
那肯保存这几块石头的,但愿他添福添寿,
那要来打扰我的骸(hai)骨的,但愿呀挨骂挨咒。
这些倒置现象,部分是由于语法的需要,部分是出于修辞的需要。英语词序能够如此灵活倒置,形态变化和运用丰富的连接词是两个重要原因。汉语缺乏形态变化,少用或不用连接词,词序相对固定。除了诗词或某些惯用的句式外,汉语词序的变化大多是把宾语提到动词或主语之前,从而引起宾语的句法功能的改变,如“她文章写的很好”,“酒他喝得太多”等等。英语有结构性倒装(structural inversion),也有功能性倒装(functional inversion),汉语则功能性倒装居多。英语形态变化规则要求句中词语之间保持语法关系一致 (grammatical concord),有了这种一致关系,此语之间只要前后呼应,就容易灵活安排。H. Sweet认为 “the free word order in such a language as Latin is mainly the result of concord”。汉语没有这种一致关系,只能按照表意的需要排列词序。如:
1) He had to quit the position and went in exile, having been deprived of his power.
他被剥夺了权力之后,只好离职,流落他乡。
2) We had been dismayed at home while reading of the natural calamities that followed one another for three years after we left China in 1959. (Hewlett and Nowell Johnson: to china at Ninety)
我们于1959年离开了中国。此后,中国连续三年遭到自然灾害。当我们在国内读到这些消息时,心情颇为低沉。
3) No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism, as well as abilities, of the very worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house. (Patrick Henry)
刚才几位可尊敬的先生向全体代表发言了。对于这几位先生的爱国精神及才干,我个人比任何人都更钦佩。
4) It must be a great satisfaction to all ranks and races engaged in our common effort that the Japanese have been challenged and beaten in jungle warfare in Burma, and that their boastfulness should have received a salutary exposure.在缅甸丛林战中,日军受到挑战并被击败。他们大言不惭的自吹,这回可得到了有力的揭露。这对于从事于我们共同事业的各阶层人士、各族人民来说,必然是一件大快人心的事。
5) Rocket research has confined a strange fact which had already been suspected: there is a “high-temperature belt” in the atmosphere, with its center roughly thirty miles above the ground.
人们早就怀疑大气中有一个高温带,其中心距地面约30英里高的地方。利用火箭加以研究后,这一奇异的事实已得到了证实。
2.汉语的定语一般在名词的前面,而英语的定语在许多情况下可以通过形态变化或借助连接词置于名词的前后,位置比较灵活。
(1)一个很重要的问题
A very important question
A question of great importance
(2)一个可以辩论的题目
A debatable subject
A subject which can be debated
(3)以空前的速度
At an unprecedented speed
At a speed unprecedented
英语的修饰词和被修饰词有时借助形态变化或连接词还可以互相转化,从而改变其修饰关系,汉语则往往不能有类似的转化:
(1)他的话并没有前后矛盾之处。
There is no inconsistency in what he said
There is nothing inconsistence in what he said
(2)她闪亮的眼睛说明她非常激动。
Her sparking eyes betrayed her great excitement
The sparkle of her eyes betrayed her great excitement.
(3)住在这监牢似的房子里,活着没多大意思。
There isn’t much to live for in this jail of a house. (Charles Dickens)
(4)我那笨蛋医生叫我写遗嘱。
My fool of a doctor told me to make my will. (John Galsworthy)
汉语的定语一般都紧挨着名词,但英语的定语有时可以远离名词,借助语法关系前后一致的原则,中间插着一些别的词语。这种情况,若不细加分析,往往导致误译:
1) Many sketches are in existence of peasants seated by the roadside and men and women at work in the fields.
至今仍保存着许多速写,画的是坐在路旁的农民和在田里劳动的男男女女。
2) The second aspect is the application by all members of society, from the government official to the ordinary citizen, of the special methods of thought and action that scientists use in their work.
第二方面是使用科学家们在工作中所运用的特殊的思想方法和行动方法。社会所有成员到普通老百姓,都要使用这些方法。
汉语没有形态变化,少用甚至不用关联词,没有定语从句,名词之前的定语不宜太长。英语借助形态变化、丰富的关联词和其他连接手段,定语可以前置于,也可以后置,后置的短语和从句可以很长。如:
1) They were forced to put forward an alternative of separate development for all races in this so-called homelands, with a promise of eventual independence for the Africans in these areas.
他们不得不变换花样,提出所有种族在自己的所谓本土上分别发展的办法,并许诺非洲人最终在这些地区获得独立。
2) An element is a substance that cannot be thrown down into simpler substance by ordinary chemical means.
元素是一种物质,这种物质不能用一般的化学方法在分解成更简单的物质。
翻译英语定语时,必须根据原文的意思和汉语的习惯灵活处理。即使是翻译英语的单词定语,有时也要改变其位置,或转换成汉语的谓语或其他成分,如:
1) Keith: A little yellow, ragged, lame, unshaven beggar. (John Galsworthy)
基思:一个讨饭的,身材矮小,面色苍黄,衣衫褴缕,瘸腿,胡子拉茬。
2) She had such a kindly, smiling, tender, gentle, generous heart of her own. (W. M. Thackeray: Vanity Fair)
她心地善良,为人乐观,性情温柔,待人和蔼,器量又大。
3) She was an intelligent, attractive and somewhat temperamental daughter of a well-to-do doctor in Haddington. ( The new Encyclopedia Britannica)
她是哈丁顿一位富裕医生的女儿,有才华,又迷人,但有点脾气。
类似以上数个描写性词语连用时,在英语里多作定语,少作谓语(heavy attribute, small predicate),在汉语里则多作谓语,少作定语 (small attribute, heavy predicate)。翻译时若能灵活利用这一不同点,译文往往比较符合表达习惯。
3.在表达多层逻辑思维时,英语可充分利用语法三大手段(形态变化,词序和虚词),常用包含许多修饰成分或从句的复合句或长句,句中各部分的顺序比较灵活。汉语表达同样的意思时,主要借助词序和虚词,常用短句、分句、流水句,按照一定的时间和逻辑顺序,有先有后,有主有次,逐层叙述。这些英汉句子里的语序,常常不同,甚至完全相反。一般说来,句中若有叙述部分和表态部分,英语常常是表态部分(判断、结论等)在前,叙述部分(事实、描写等)在后,即先总提后分述,或先讲结果后追述过去,汉语的顺序往往相反;句中若有长短部分,英语常常是先短后长,即头轻脚重(end-weight),汉语的顺序则往往相反;汉语的时间顺序和逻辑关系常常按照由先到后、由因到果、由假设到推论、由事实到结论这样的次序排列,而英语可以借助形态变化和丰富的连接词语,根据句子的意思和结构的需要灵活排列,顺序往往和汉语不同。试比较:
1)I believe strongly that it is in the interests of my countrymen than Britain should remain an active and energetic member of the European Community.
我强烈地认为,英国应该继续是欧洲共同体中一个积极而充满活力的成员,这是符合我国人民的利益的。
2) I was all the more delighted when, as a result of the initiative of your Government, it proved possible to reinstate the visit so quickly.
由于贵国政府的提议,才得以这样快地重新实现访问。这使我感到特别高兴。
3) On earth, where fog or rain would interfere with transmission, lasers would have to be beamed through evacuated pipelines to prevent power loss.
地球上的雾或雨会干扰激光的传播,因此,为了防止能量的损失,激光必须从真空管道通过。
4) It is easy to see what weight can be overcome and what thrust is necessary to maintain flight.
要知道应该抵消多大重力并需要多大推力才能保持飞行,这很容易。
5) Nowadays it is understood that a diet which contains nothing harmful may result in serious disease if certain important elements are missing.
如今人们知道,如果食物中缺少了某些重要的成分,即使其中不含有任何有害的物质,也会引起严重的疾病。
6) The assertion that it was difficult, if not impossible, for a people to enjoy its basic rights unless it was able to determine freely its political status and to ensure freely its economic, social and cultural development was now scarcely contested.
如果一个民族不能自由地决定其政治地位,不能自由地保持其经济、社会和文化的发展,要享有其基本权利,即使不是不可能,也是不容易的。这一论断,几乎是无可置辩的了。
由于英汉语思维习惯和表达方式的差异,改变语序、重组结构并成了翻译中常用的手段,长句翻译尤其如此,如:
(1)Category II contains only four items, (2)and I shall say no more about them except that, (3)since they are under consideration, (4)we should not let the grass grow under feet, but attempt, as early as possible, to arrive at a common understanding (5) in the interest of humanity.
这是一个并列复合句,包孕多个修饰语和从句,表达五层的意思。汉语要表达同样的意思,必须按照逻辑顺序重新安排,拆成七个部分,组成三个句子,顺序是l-3—5-4-2:
第二类只包括四项,而且都已在审议之中。为了人类的利益,我们应该不失时机,力图尽快求得共同的认识。除此之外,别的我就不多说了。
(1)I believe that (2)I speak for every sincere and serious representative in the United Nations --- (3)so I am encouraged to believe by the speeches to which we have already listened this morning --- (4)when I say (5)that the anniversary must be an occasion for an honest assessment of our failures in the past, (6)matched by an equally determined will to do better in the future, (7)so that we can escape from frustration and (8)turn the anniversary into an inspiration and an achievement.
这是一个多重复合句,通过连接词和形态变化把八层意思连接起来,先表态,后叙事,其语序几乎与汉语的表达习惯相反:5-6-7—8-4—l-3-2:
这次周年纪念会应该是一个老老实实地评估我们过去的失误的时机,同时也应该是一个表达我们有同样决心要做好今后工作的时机。这样,我们就可免遭挫折,并可把这次周年纪念变成一种鼓舞和成就。当我讲这番话时,我相信---今天上午我们听到的发言也使我相信---我是代表联合国每一位真诚和严肃的代表讲话的。
三、英汉都有大量的虚词,但各有特点。
英语的虚词(form words),也称结构词(structural words)或功能词(function words),包括冠词、介词、助动词、并列连接词(coordinators)和从属连接词(subordinators)等。汉语的虚词(empty words)包括介词、助词(particles)和连词等。英汉虚词都是与实词(notion words或full words)相对而言的,在句中主要起辅助和连接等作用。英汉虚词各有特色:不仅种类不同,用法也不同。如:
1.英语经常使用定冠词和不定冠词,这是英语的一大特点。用不用冠词,什么地方用冠词,用什么冠词,常常有正误之分或意思之别。这是中国人学习英语的难点之一。因为汉语没有冠词,英译汉时可以省略,但有时一个冠词之差,意思大不相同,这时汉语就要用不同的词语来表达。如:
(1) out of question毫无问题
out of the question不可能
(2) take the chair(当会议主席)主持会议
take a chair坐下
(3) a hundred and one许许多多
one hundred and one 一百零一
(4) she was with a child她带着一个孩子
she was with child她怀着孕
(5) They are students of our school他们是本校的部分学生
They are the students of our school他们是本校的全体学生
(6) I have lived here for more than a year我住在这里已一年多了。(一年又几个月)
I have lived here for more than one year我住在这里已不止一年了。(可能两、三年)
(7) She served me with a kind of coffee.她请我喝一种特别的咖啡。
She served me with coffee of a kind. 她请我喝一种不大好的咖啡。
2.汉语有丰富多彩的助词,这是汉语的一大特点。助词又分为动态助词(如:着、了、过)、结构助词(如:的、地、得)和语气助词(如:吗、呢、吧、啊、嘛、呀、哪)等。这些助词的作用,有一部分相当一于英语的形态变化,有一部分却能左右结构、表达丰富的语气色彩:_
啦 他早来啦!(确定语气)
Why, he’s been here a long time!
这回我可亲眼看见啦!(感叹语气)
This time I’ve actually seen it for myself.
她真来啦?(疑问语气)
Has she really come?
吧 今天不会下雨吧?(揣测语气)
It isn’t going to rain today, is it?
你好好想想吧!(提议语气)
Just think it over.
明天就明天吧。(认可语气)
All right, let’s make it tomorrow.
咱们走吧。(商量语气)
Let’ s go.
打吧,打不下去;跑吧,跑不了,敌人只好投降。(假设语气)
Unable to fight on or to escape, the enemy were forced to surrender.
呀 快来呀!(请求语气)
Come here, quick!
他的话说得对呀!(说服语气)
What he said is right.
啊 多好的天儿啊!(赞叹语气)
What a fine day!
你这话说得是啊。(肯定语气)
what you said is quite true.
你啊,老这样下去可不行!(加重语气)
Look!you can’t go on like this.
你可要小心啊!(嘱咐语气)
Do be careful!
嘛 这也不能怪他,头一回嘛。(答辩语气)
He’ s not to blame. After all, it was the first time he’d done it.
呗 你不会骑车就学呗。(当然语气)
You can’ t ride a bike?Well, learn to.
呢 远得很,有好几千里地呢。(确认语气)
It’s s a long way off-thousands of li away.
哪 加油干哪!(催促语气)
Speed up!(Come on!)
语气助词(emotional particles)是汉语最重要的特征之一。英语没有这类词,句中的语气一般要借助语调(intonation)或其他办法来表达:
You must be feeling rather tired.
你一定觉得有点儿累。
你一定觉得有点儿累了。(较肯定的语气)
你一定觉得有点儿累了吧。(半信半疑的语气)
汉语有了语气词,表示情绪的语调就居于次要的地位了,同时,汉语的声调(tones)用来表示词义的变化,就不大适宜用来表示情绪。因此,英语常被称为语调语言(intonation language),汉语则常被称为声调语言(tone language)。
3.英语常用介词,汉语则少用介词。英语介词除了单独作为一类词使用外,还可以构成形式多样的合成介词和成语介词。这类词和短语不仅数量大,而且使用得十分频繁,与汉语相比,显得相当突出。汉语介词大多是从动词“借”来的,严格说来,“现代中国语根本就没有真正的介词”。英译汉时,英语的介词常常译成汉语的动词:
1) What is he at?
他正在_干_什么?
2) John voted with the Tories.
约翰投票_支持_保守党。
3) He is a man above vulgar interests.
他是一个_脱离_了低级趣味的人。
4) Peter drew his knife on the robber.
彼得拔刀向那个强盗_砍_去。
5) It looks as if we are in for a storm.
看来我们免不了要_碰上_一场暴风雨了。
6) If a man couldn’t walk into a room and tell who was for him and who was against him, then he was not much of a politician. (D.Halberstam:The Best and the Brightest)
要是一个人不能一上任就看出谁_支持_他,谁_反对_他,那他就不配搞政治。
4.英语表示并列和从属关系的连接词,不仅种类和数量比汉语多,而且使用率也比汉语高。除了与汉语相似的连接词(如:or或者,not only…but also不但…而且,if如果,because因为,unless除非,when当…时候等)外,英语还有连接代词、关系代词、连接副词和关系副词(这些代词和副词如who,whom,whose,that,what,which,when,where,why,how等)。这些词在句中使用得相当频繁。汉语没有这类起连接作用的代词和副词,也少用或不用其他连接词,句中的并列或主从关系,在口语、非正式文体和古汉语中常常借助词序、上下文和副词等表达,只有在书面语和正式文体中才常用连接词,但其出现频率也不及英语。如:(老师,因为我不舒服,所以我想出去一下。)
1)This was the period when Einstein began the research which resulted in the creation of his famous Theory of Relativity.
就在这期间,爱因斯坦开始进行了一项研究。经过这项研究,他创立了著名的相对论。
2) He spoke so well that everybody was convinced of his innocence.
他说得那么好听,谁都相信他是无辜的了。
3) Practically an substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。
汉语有些副词(如“才”、“就”、“也”、“还”等)经常跟连词配合使用,既起副词的修饰作用,又起关联上下语句的作用,如“只有…才…”“如果…就…”“即使…也…”“不但…还…”等。这类副词有时也可以单独起关联作用,如:
1) Even if you go there it won’t do any good.
去了也是白去的。
2) Only after I had heard his explanation did I understand what it was all about.
听了他的解释,我才知道是怎么回事。
3) We cannot really learn anything until we rid ourselves of complacency.
不克服自满情绪,就无法学到任何东西。
汉译英时,常常要增补连接词:
1)火车未停,请勿开门。
Don’t open the door until the train stops.
2)鸡蛋未孵,勿先数维。
Don’ t count your chickens before they are hatched.
3)喝水不忘掘井人。
When you drink water, think of those who dug the well.
4)无事不登三宝殿。
I wouldn’t come to you if I had not something to ask of you·
英语组合语句的手段是形态、词序和虚词配合使用,三者相辅相成,互相调剂,互相替换。H.Sweet认为,“inflection itself has exactly the same function as the use of form words.”如:
the nature of man (虚词)
man’s nature (形态代替虚词,同时改变词序)
tell him the news. (词序)
Tell the news to him. (借助虚词改变词序)
汉语没有发达的形态变化,组合语句主要借助词序和虚词。
英语表达语法意义的三大手段有严格的规范,有时虽可根据表达的需要选择某种手段,但一般都有强制性,如在什么情况下该用词形变化,用词的何种形式(如一ed或一ing),在什么情况下该用虚词,用什么虚词(如“to”或“for”),如此等等,都有一定的规则,随意违反这些规则,往往不符合表达规范。汉语则不同。张志公指出,“汉语语法是强制中有灵活性,灵活中有强制性。……在汉语里,带有绝对强制性的规则比较少,而既有规则又有可选择的方式多,因此,从表达的需要来选择的余地就很大了。”例如,汉语的虚词,就大多数而论,很难说是纯粹的语法成分。如果是纯粹的语法成分,那就当用必用,不当用必不可用。然而,汉语的虚词在一般当用的地方可以不用,用与不用对句子的语法完整性并没影响。如:
These problems have been solved.
这些问题已经解决了。
这些问题已经_被_解决了。
Yesterday he got up very early.
昨天他很早起床。
昨天他很早_就_起床_了_。
四、英语是语调语言,汉语是声调语言。
形态、词序和虚词这三大语法手段与语音表意手段也有密切的关系。
由于现代英语的形态变化减少,词序变得相对固定,又没有类似汉语的语气助词可用来表达各种语气,因此,借助语音表意便成了一种重要的手段。C.L.Wrenn对此有过较为清楚的论述:
In a language in which inflexion has been greatly reduced, word-order must become relatively more rigid. 0n consequence of this tendency to a fixed word-order will b an increase in the role of intonation in the language. For since the varying of the order of words is no longer so possible as a means of conveying shades of meaning such as those that depend on emphasis, this emphasis must be obtained b3 other means; and the varying of tone to indicate meanings no longer expressible by placing emphatic words in appropriate positions in the sentence (as is done in Latin) is one of the chief of those employed in Modern English. Moreover in a language of the Germanic type with a relatively fixed stress, like English, musical variety of tone to indicate shades of meaning becomes much more natural. For these reasons such a language as Chinese, with the distinctions of inflexions, and even the whole scheme of parts of speech1 completely removed, finds its natural way of development through a fundamental system of tones and tone-groups (called tonemes). A change of tone in Chinese will turn ‘to buy’ into ‘to sell’, for instance. In English, though th process of reduction of inflexion and its consequences ha~ reached nothing like so far as the so-called monosyllabism of Chinese, and therefore intonation does not play so fundamental a part in the syntax of the language, intonation has, nevertheless, a very important and far-reaching role. A rising or falling tone in the parts of the sentence determines much of its meaning. Moreover, there is a very close bond between stress and tone or pitch, a strong stress, for instance, often corresponding with a rising tone. Such a sentence as ‘You are going to buy that house’ may be a statemeant of fact (declaratory) or a question (interrogative) according to whether the tone is falling or rising at its end.
英语的语音表意手段主要是语调(intonation)重音(stress)。语调的升降变化有六种:降调(falling tone)、升调(rising tone)、降升调(fall-rise)、升降调(rise-fall)、平调(level)和降加升调(fall-plus-rise)。这些语调的变化可以表达不同的语义和语气,重音的改变可以表达不同的强调和词类。语调和重音密切配合,可以表达意义的差别:(下划线为重读)
1)You may not go.你不可以去。
You may not go. 你可以不去。
2)All cats don’t like water.(=All cats dislike water)猫都不喜欢水。
All cats don’t like water. (=Not all cats like water)并不是所有的猫都喜欢水。
3)I didn’t leave home, because I was afraid of my father.我没离开家,因为我怕我父亲。
I didn’t leave home because I was afraid of my father.
我离开了家,但不是因为我怕我父亲。
汉语没有形态变化,词序比英语固定,虽有语气助词表达各种语气,语音表意仍为一种相当重要的手段。汉语的语音手段主要是声调(tone)。汉语的每个音节,都有能够区别字义、词义的声调。声调有四个:阴平、阳平、上声和去声,是音节的高低升降变化。声母和韵母相同的字、词,其意义往往靠不同的声调来区别。掌握不住声调,很可能把“我爱妈”说成“我挨骂”,把“你的衣服”说成“你的姨夫”。H.Sweet曾谈到在一次中英官员谈判时,译员告诉英国人,中国官员把英国称为“your country of devils”;(guiguo鬼国),因为中国人常把外国人称为“洋鬼子”。后来才知道译员听错了,中国官员说的是“guiguo贵国”(your honored or distinguished country),可见声调表意的重要性。
此外,汉语的语音表意还有其他一些手段,如语调,以及重读与轻读的差别:
I我叫他去。(“去”重读)I’ll ask him to go.
我叫他去。(“去”轻读) I’ll go and call him.
我想起来了。(“起来”重读)I’ll get up.
我想起来了。(“起来”轻读)I’ve thought it out.
汉语语音的另一特点是音节匀称,成双成对。古代汉语单音节占优势,现代汉语双音节占优势,如“言”分化成“言论”、“言谈”、“言语”等。有些单音节词的活动受到限制,便扩展为双音节,如在前后加上一个不增加多少意义的字(“老虎”、“石头”),或把两个意义相同或相近的字合起来用(“墙壁”、“艰难”),或两字重叠(“星星”、“宝宝”)。有些三音节词压缩成双音节,如“落花生---花生”、“机关枪—机枪”。许多双音节词往往还要求别的双音节词跟它相配,如“伟大人物”、“进行调查”。汉语存在着大量以种种方式组成的四字格,如“丰衣足食”、“日月星辰”、“左思有想”、“动手动脚”、“千头万绪”、“微乎其微”等。
总之,双音节化和四音节化(predominance of disyllables and quadrisyllables over monosyllables and trisyllables)是现代汉语的主要节奏倾向。由于这一主要倾向的影响,汉语音节匀称,词语和句式往往成双成对,对偶、对照、排比、反复和重叠成了中国人所喜闻乐见的修辞方式。与英语相比,汉语的这类均衡美和节奏美,不能不说是一大特色:
It was a day as fresh as grass growing up and clouds going over and butterflies coming down can make it. It was a day compounded from silences of bee and flower and ocean and land, which were not silences at all, but motions, stirs, flutters, risings, fallings, each in its own time and matchless rhythm.
绿草萋萋,白云冉冉,彩蝶翩翩,这日子是如此清新可爱;蜜峰无言,春花不语,海波声歇,大地音寂,这日子是如此安静。然而并非安静,因为万物各以其特有的节奏,或动,或摇,或震,或起,或伏。
附加:
文字的特点
一国文字有它特异的地方,不可不知。中国诗因为汉字单音,所以可以写得整齐,有对仗,西方诗也有行,有所谓音步,也相当整齐,而不如中国诗。至于对仗,也可以有一点,谈不到工整。他们的文章无非把一句话两面说一说而已。
我要提起的“得失”、“成败”一类的词,并非指“得失”、“成败”。以前论翻译时承友人萧定韩兄提过这一点,近看顾炎武的《日知录》,里面有一篇“通鉴注”(卷二十八),也想到“古人之辞宽缓不迫”,所以“爱憎”指的是“憎”,“得失失也”,“缓急急也”(如《史记·仓公传》:“缓急无可使者”,意思是“遇到急事无人可以差使”。)“成败败也”,“同异异也”,诸如此类。翻译的人看见英文loss遇到某处情形,大可译成“得失”,不必害怕。至于写文章,更不用迟疑。
A difference arose between the neighbors over the height of the fence.我们会译成:“邻居之间为了篱笆的高度惹起了一场争论。”这一句里的height当然是“高度”。不过中国话不是这样说的。我们说“(为了篱笆的)高低”。照顾炎武在他的《日知录》卷二十八“通鉴注”里说:“古人之辞宽缓不迫”,所以“言憎而并及爱”,“得失,失也。……利害,害也。……成败,败也。”下面还有例子,所以我这里用的“高低”就是“高”。为这一点鲁迅责备过梁实秋,梁先生也没有引《日知录》自辩。日后鲁迅自己也用了同样的词,我也不必详细列出。
凡一国文字译成它国文字,就要多用很多字,这几乎是通例。原因在可省的地方不敢省,而不可省的又非译出不可。其实如果懂得两种文字的特点,有些地方也可以免掉词汇。论到翻译,很简单地可以说,找出译文相当的字词,添进译文不可少的字词,删去译文里用不着的字词,如此而已。我朋友之中有能用中英文写作的,连自己的中文译成英文都有啰嗦、不可读之处。这是因为他一拿笔翻译,就被原文捆住,挣扎不得了。可见翻译是另外一种不同的文字活动。
中国文字历史悠久,词汇丰富,我们要学得齐全,太不容易。我们现在常用的“大家”是从前宫中近臣或后妃用来对皇帝的称呼,唐诗里常用到。这是很容易误会的。
第二章:聚集与流散
(Compact vs**.Diffusive****)**
英语句子有严谨的主谓结构。这个结构通常由名词性短语(NP)和动词性短语(VP)构成。主语不可或缺,谓语动词是句子的中心,两者协调一致(S-V concord),提纲挈领,聚集各种关系网络(connective-nexus)。因此,英语句子主次分明,层次清楚,前呼后拥,严密规范,句式呈“聚集型”(compactness)。
英语的主语和谓语动词搭配,形成句子的核心(kernel),谓语动词控制句子主要成分的格局。句子尽管错综复杂,千变万化,但根据谓语动词的类别和特征,都可以把英语的主谓结构归结为五种基本句型,即,SV,SVP,SVO,SVOO,SVOC:
基本句型(一)主语十动词
The telephone rang.电话铃响过了。
The meeting has begun.会议开始了。
基本句型(二)主语十动词十表语
We are students.我们是学生。
She appeared cheerful.她显得很高兴。
基本句型(三)主语十动词十宾语
Labor created man.劳动创造了人。
The news surprised me.这消息使我感到惊奇。
基本句型(四)主语十动词十间接宾语十直接宾语
She sang us a song.她给我们唱了一首歌。
I sent him a letter.我给他寄了一封信。
基本句型(五)主语十动词十宾语十宾语补足语
He painted the door green.他把门漆成绿色。
We elected him our monitor.我们选他当班长。
英语各种长短句子,一般都可以看作是这五种基本句型及其变式、扩展、组合、省略或倒装:
1、基本句型的变式。上述五种基本句型都是陈述句、肯定句和主动句。由这些基本句型可以转换为以下几种主要的变式:
a)陈述句变疑问句。陈述句通过改变语序或使用助动词可以变为疑问句,如:
Has the meeting begun?会议开始了吗?
Did you sent him a letter?你给他寄信了吗?
b)肯定句变否定句。肯定句通过使用否定词、助动词可以变为否定句,如:
We are not students.我们不是学生。
The telephone did not ring.电话铃没有响。
c)主动句变被动句。基本句型(三)、(四)、(五)的大部分主动句通过使用助动词(和介词)、改变词序和动词的形态可以变为被动句,如:
The door was painted green.门已漆成绿色。
A letter was sent to him. 已经给他寄了一封信。
d)“There+be十主语”结构。这种表示“存在”的句型可以看作是基本句型(一)的不同形式:
There was a meeting yesterday.昨天有一个会议。
There came a knock at the door.有敲门的声音。
2.基本句型的扩展。上述五种基本句型及其变式,还可以通过以下方式加以扩展:
a)增加修饰语。修饰语主要是定语和状语,可以采用单词或词组,也可以采用从句,如:
Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the computer of which it forms a part, thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputers.
现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分,使计算机的体积大大缩小,从而产生了新一代的袖珍式微型计算机。
When Chou En-lai’s door opened they saw a slender man of more than average height with gleaming eyes and a face so sinking that it bordered on the beautiful.
周思来的房门打开了。他们看到了一位身材修长的人,比普通人略高,目光炯炯,面貌弓队注目,称得上清秀。
b)扩展基本句型的成分。基本句型的成分是单词,若采用词组或从句,句型结构即得以扩展:
The kaleidoscope of shifting interests of the nations during the negotiation made it impossible to sort out the “winners” and “losers”.
谈判期间,各国的利益变化不断,好像万花筒似的,这就使人难以分辨出究竟谁是“胜者”,谁是“输家”。
The structure of the steel and the resulting properties will depend on how hot the street gets and how quickly or slowly it is cooled.
钢的结构及其形成的性质,取决于加热的温度和冷却的速度。
3.基本句型的组合。基本句型及其变式、扩展,还可以通过并列连词或标点连接起来,组合成并列句或并列复合句:
A few stars are known which are hardly bigger than the earth, but the majority are so large that hundreds of thousands of earths could be packed inside each and leave room to spare; here and there we come upon a giant star large enough to contain millions of millions of earth.
人们所知道的几千个星球并不比地球大多少,但绝大多数的星球却大得足以容下成千上万个地球还绰绰有余;我们到处都能遇见大得足以容纳千千万万个地球的巨星。
Our Charter, being a historical product, has its limitations, and although we have always considered that strict respect for the principles it embodies is the key to considerable progress in international coexistence, we now venture to suggest certain changes, which are technical rather than political, to improve the machinery available to the Organization, since the lofty aims to which we aspire will be the more readily attainable the better the machinery at our disposal.
我们的宪章,作为历史的产物,有其局限性。因此,尽管我们一向认为,严格地尊重宪章所体现的原则是国际共处中取得可观进步的关键,我们仍然冒昧地建议作出某些变更---技术性的而非政治性的变更---借以改善本组织现有的机构,因为我们所掌握的机构越完善,我们所向往的崇高目标就越容易达到。
4、基本句型的省略。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合,根据表达的需要,可以省略某些成分或词语。一般说来,省略的部分可以复原,省略句仍然可以看作是基本句型的变体。如:
l)To err is human,to forgive(is)divine.
人孰无过,恕过者神。
2)If one had but two heads and neither required sleep!(T.H.Huxley)
(=It would be nice if one had but two heads and neither required sleep!)
人要是有两个脑袋,而且都不需要睡觉,那就好了。
3)Every language has its peculiarities; they are established by usage, and whether(they are) right or wrong, they must be complied with.
每种语言都有特点,这些特点是在习惯使用中形成的,不论正确与否,都得遵守。
4)A serious matter this for you and me.(B. Shaw)
(= A serious matter is this for you and me./This is a serious matter for you and me)
对你和我来说,这是件严重的事情。
5、基本句型的倒装。基本句型及其变式、扩展和组合,根据表达的需要,可以调换其正常的语序。一般说来,调换的语序可以复原,倒装句也可以看作是基本句型的变体:
l)The greatest truths are the simplest, so are the greatest men_._
最伟大的真理总是最朴素的,最伟大的人物也是最朴素的。
2)Neither could theory do without practice,nor(could)practice(do)without theory.
理论离不开实践,实践也离不开理论。
3) Such treatment I did not expect, for I never had a patron before.(S.Johnson)
这种待遇是我所未曾意料到的,因为过去我从未有过恩主。
4)Naked you want it, naked you’ll have it.(I.F.Aldridge)
你要求把事实和盘托出,那就这样吧。
5) Deal with us nobly, women though we be.(Mrs.Browning)
虽然我们是妇女,请以高尚的态度对待我们。
6) Never was night so still; never was a sky so deeply blue, nor stars so bright and serene.
夜从无如此沉寂,天从无如此深蓝,星亦从无如此明亮。
A.S.Hornby根据调语动词的类别及其与其他词语的搭配习惯,把英语用谓语动词造句的型式归纳为 2 5种;_Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English_则把动词句型归纳为6类。此外,名词、形容词、副词等的造句规则也有一定的型式。不管英语句型如何划分,一般都可从其结构形式找出一定的规律,并在词典里加以编码,以供仿效。
英语注重句子结构完整,注重结构形式规范,句子尽管繁简交替、长短交错,但形式仍不致流散,其主要原因是英语有许多聚集句子的手段,如形态标志及连接词语使各种成分关系明确,“it”、“there”这类填补词(expletives)使句子结构完整,等等。O.Jespersen 指出, “It became an invariable custom to have a subject before the verb, and therefore a sentence which did not contain a subject was felt to be incomplete. many of the rules concerning the use of it are seen to be due on the one hand to the speaker’ s wish to conform to certain patterns of sentence construction found in innumerable sentences with other subjects or objects, and on the other hand to his wish to avoid clumsy combinations which might even sometimes lead to misunderstandings.
英语句子复杂而不流散的另一重要原因是:句子成分之间或词语之间必须在人称、数、性和意义等方面保持协调一致的关系(concord或agreement)。这一原则包括以下三方面:
l.语法一致(grammatical concord):即在语法形式上保持主语和谓语动词之间数与人称的一致(如动词单数第三人称加-s;-es),主语和表语之间数的一致(如 She is a student; They are students),宾语和宾语补足语之间数的一致(如I found the boy a bright pupil; I found the boys bright pupils),人称代词、某些限定词和它们的照应对象之间的人称、数或性的一致(如The girl has seen her mother),等等。
2.意义一致(notional concord):即在意义上保持一致,如主语形式为复数,但意义为单数,谓语动词依意义采取单数形式,反之亦然:
Two thousand dollars is more than he can afford.
两千元美金他可付不起。
My family are all fond of playing table tennis.
我全家都爱打乒乓球。
非限定动词作状语或定语,其逻辑主语或逻辑宾语必须与句子的主语或被修饰语保持协调一致:
l)Sent to zoos in Tokyo and other cities, the pandas are reported to have settled down very well.
这些熊猫送到东京和其他城市的动物园以后,据说都适应得很好。
2)Mary felt sad not to have been invited to the banquet.
玛丽没有被邀请去参加宴会,心里很难受。
3.就近原则(Principle of proximity):即谓语动词的人称和数往往和其最靠近的词语保持一致,如:
Either you or I am going. 要么你去,要么我去。
Neither you, nor I, nor anyone else _knows t_he answer.你和我,以及其他任何人,都不知道这个答案。
英语句子成分之间这种协调一致的原则,使句子结构受到形态的约束,因而句式严谨、规范、刻板,缺乏弹性。
相比之下,汉语的主谓结构要复杂得多。主语不仅形式多样,而且可有可无:它可表示施事、受事,也可表示时间、地点;可用名词、动词,也可用形容词、数量词;句子可以没有主语,也可以省略主语,还可以变换主语并予以隐含。试比较下列英汉句子的主语:
1) 文章翻译完了。(受事主语)
The article has been translated.
2)全市到处在兴建新工厂。(地点主语)
New factories are being built all over the city.
3)现在正下着毛毛雨。(时间主语)
It’ s drizzling at the moment.
4)累得我站不起来了。(无主句)
I’ m so exhausted that I can’ t stand up.
5)他有个女儿,()在北京工作,()已经打电话去了,()听说明天就能回来。(变换主语并予省略)
He has a daughter, who works in Beijing. Someone has phoned her and it is said that she will be back tomorrow.
6)凤姐还欲问时,只听二门上传出云板,连叩四下,将风姐惊醒。(曹雪芹:《红楼梦》)
Before Xifeng could ask more she was woken with a start by four blows on the chimebar at the second gate
7)如今没奈何,把你雇在间壁人家放牛,每月可以得他几钱银子,你又有现成饭吃,只在明日就要去了。(吴敬梓:《儒林外史》)
There is no way out but to set you to work looking after our neighbor’s buffalo. You’ll make a little money every month, and you’11 get your meals there too. You are to start tomorrow.
汉语的谓语也复杂多样:它可以是动词、名词或形容词;可以是一个动词,也可以是多个动词,还可以没有动词;它可以是一个单词,也可以是多个词组。试比较下列英汉句子的谓语:
1) 天高云淡。(形容词作调语)
The sky is high and the clouds are pale.
2)他出国留学去了。(连动式谓语)
He has gone abroad for further studies.
3)我介绍他加入协会。(兼语式调语)
I recommended him for membership of the association.
4)这项合同经理要签名。(主谓词组作谓语)
This contract should be signed bythe manager.
5)这姑娘长得漂亮,鹅蛋形脸,两眼又深又黑,披着又长又密的头发。
She is a pretty girl with an oval face, deep dark eyes and long heavy clinging tresses.
6)许多房子,盖着琉璃瓦,曲曲折折,无数的朱红栏杆。(吴敬梓:《儒林外史》)
Many houses were roofed with glazed tiles and set within winding red balustrades.
7)他们这群人,又想吃人,又是鬼鬼祟祟,想法子遮掩,不敢直捷下手,真要令我笑死。(鲁迅:《狂人日记》) All these people wanting to eat human flesh and at the same time stealthily trying to keep up appearances, not daring to act promptly, really made me nearly die of laughter.
汉语不受形态的约束,没有主谓形式协调一致的关系,也就没有这种关系可以驾驭全句。汉语主谓结构具有很大的多样性、复杂性和灵活性,因而句式呈“流散型”(diffusiveness)。
由于汉语重内在意念而不重外在形式,汉语的句型也就难以象英语那样以谓语动词为中心从形式上去划分。汉语句型的研究结果表明,按照句子结构去划分句型,不仅型式量大繁杂(一般归纳为几十个句型不等,有的多达130多个句型),而且难以概括齐全,颇有争议。英语重形合(hypo-taxis),较宜以成分格局为主、功能意义为辅来划分句型;汉语重意合(parataxis),较宜以功能意义为主、成分格局为辅来划分句型。按照表意功能及表达形式,汉语句型大体可以分为九大类:
1.话题句,其基本格式是“话题语十评论语”,如:
开车他没有经验。He is inexperienced in driving.
婚姻的事我自己作主。As for my marriage, I’ll make my own decision.
这艘船是中国制造的。This ship was built in China.
2.施事句,其基本格式是“施事语十动作语”,如:
他在学习开车。He is learning how to drive.
她点头表示同意。She nodded her agreement.
雨水促使杂草生长。The rain caused the weeds to grow.
3.关系句,即表达各种关系的复句,如:
(因为)他天天练习开车,(所以)很快就学会了。
He soon learnt how to drive because of his daily practice.
如处理得当,问题不难解决。
The problem will not be difficult to solve, if properly handled.
只要虚心,就会进步。
Provided you are modest, you’ll surely make progress.
4.呼叹句,即交谈中相互呼唤、应对或感叹的句子,如:
是呀,他车开得真好! Yes, he is an excellent driver!
多么新鲜的水果啊!How fresh the fruit is!
看她多精神!Look how energetic she is!
5.祈使句,即表达要求、命令或请求的句子,如:
请勿酒后开车。
Please don’t drink and drive.
不要总以为自己对。Don’t think you are always right.
别管我,救火要紧! Don’ t bother about me!Put out the fire first!
6.存现句,即表示人或事物存在或消失的句子,如:
黑暗中来了一部车子。A car is coming in the dark.
前面是一片稻田。There is a stretch of rice fields ahead.
还有许多工作要做。 Much remains to be done.
7.有无句,其基本格式是“领有者十(没)有十被领有者”,如:
他有两部小车。He has two cars.
她有热情,有朝气。She is full of vigor and enthusiasm.
此事有百利而无一弊。 It has every advantage and no drawback.
8.描写句,其基本格式是“主题语十描写语(形容词)”,如:
这部小车很新。This car is brand-new.
房间干干净净。 The room is neat and tidy.
这东西又便宜又好。 It is cheap but good.
9.说明句,其基本格式是“主题语十说明语(名词)”,如:
今天星期日。Today is Sunday·
我上海人。I’m from Shanghai.
这箱子八十磅。This box weighs eighty pounds.
尽管汉语可以从功能意义划分出几大类型,但其表现形式仍十分复杂。汉语是重语感、重变通的语言,组句的自由度很大,句子长长短短,不求形式齐整,而求意思通顺。许多表达形式灵活多变,往往靠约定俗成。从形式看,汉语似乎有不少非逻辑表达方式(illogical expressions),试比较:
晒太阳to bask in the sun.
晒衣服to sun one’s clothes
吃食堂to have one’s meals in the mess
吃苹果to eat an apple
还他的债to pay him one’s debts
还他的钱to pay him back
住四人four people live in …
住旅馆to stay at a hotel
在家养病to recuperate at home
闭目养神to sit in repose with one’s eyes closed
救火fire fighting
救国to save the nation
打扫卫生to do some cleaning
打扫房间to clean the room
补充缺额to fill a vacancy
补充人力to replenish manpower
恢复疲劳to get refreshed
恢复健康to recover one’s health
汉语缺乏形态变化,缺乏词性标记,较少使用连接词,语句的结构关系较难分辨,因而语法歧义的现象也比较多,如:
烤羊肉roast mutton / to roast mutton
两个乡干部two village carders / carders from two villages
鸡不吃了The chicken has stopped eating. / I won’t eat any more chicken.
汉语偏重意会,略于形式,因而脱离一定的语境的语句也容易产生语法歧义,以下各例也是如此:
l)他欠你的钱(他十欠你钱/他欠你的十钱)
2)准备了两年的食物(准备了两年的十食物/准备了十两年的食物)
3)对于他的态度(对于十他的态度/对于他的十态度)
4)我和他的老师(我和他的十老师/我十和他的老师)
5)热爱人民的总理(热爱十人民的总理/热爱人民的十总理)
6)神秘的少女的心(神秘的十少女的心/神秘的少女的十心)
7)找到了孩子的妈妈(找到了孩子的十妈妈/找到了十孩子的妈妈)
8)喜欢的是她(喜欢她/她喜欢)
9)研究方法很重要(研究的方法/对方法进行研究)
10)是前天发的电报(回答“这是什么”/回答“什么时候发电报”)
11)财务组应该清查(“财务组”是施事:清查别人/“财务组”是受事:被清查)
12)我差一点没跟他结婚(想跟他结婚,事实上也跟他结婚了/不想跟他区结婚,也没有跟他结婚/跟不跟他结婚无所谓,不过事实上没有跟他结婚)
英语受形态变化规则的约束,有不少词性标记,常用关系词和连接词,语句的结构关系比较清楚,因而语法歧义比汉语少。英语的语法歧义主要见于表意形式含糊的结构,尤其是模棱两可的修饰关系,如:
l)John saw Mary with the binoculars.
a)约翰用望远镜看到了玛丽。(with短语修饰saw)
b) 约翰看见玛丽带着一个望远镜。(with短语修饰Mary)
2)All of the arrows didn’t hit the target.
a)不是所有的箭都射中靶子。(部分否定)
b)所有的箭都没有射中靶子。(全部否定)
3)He loves the dog more than his wife.
a)他爱这只狗胜过爱他的妻子。(…than he loves his wife)
b)他比他妻子更爱这只狗。(…than his wife loves the dog)
4)I knew that you had seen him before I met you.
a) 我知道在我见到你之前,你就看见过他了。
(= I knew that, before I met you, you had seen him)
b) 在我见到你之前,我就知道你看见过他了。
(= Before I met you, I knew that you had seen him)
汉语句式的多样化还表现在:有整句(full sentence),也有大量的零句(minor sentence)。整句有主谓结构;零句没有主谓结构,由词或词组构成。零句是汉语的基本句型,可以作整句的主语,也可以作整句的谓语。整句由零句组成,因而复杂多样,灵活多变。整句与零句混合交错,组成了流水句。吕叔湘曾指出,“汉语口语里特多流水句,一个小句接一个小句,很多地方可断可连。”这些句式流泻铺排,主谓难分,主从难辨,形散神聚,富有节奏,不仅常见于口语,书面语也不乏其例:
l)接着,他继续设想,鸡又生鸡,用鸡卖钱,钱买母牛,母牛繁殖,卖牛得钱,用钱放债,这么一连串的发财计划,当然也不能算是生产的计划。(马南邨(cun):《燕山夜话》)
He went on indulging in wishful thinking. Chickens would breed more chickens. Selling them would bring him money. With this he could buy cows. The cows would breed too and selling oxen would make more money for him. With the money, he could become a moneylender. Such a succession of steps for getting rich, of course, had nothing at all to do with production.
2)河面大小船只泊定后,莫不点了小小的油灯,拉了蓬。各个船上皆在后舱烧了火,用铁鼎罐煮饭,饭焖熟后,又换锅子熬油,哗的把蔬菜倒进热锅里去。一切齐全了,各人蹲在舱板上三碗五碗把腹中填满后,天已夜了。(沈从文:《鸭巢围的夜》)
After the boats large and small had moored, all lit tiny oil lamps and fixed up mat canopies. Rice was boiled in iron cauldrons over fires in the stern, and once this was cooked the vegetables were fried in another pan of sizzling oil. When the meal was ready, everyone aboard could wolf down three or five bowls. By then it was dark.(Gladys Yang译)
3)芙蓉镇街面不大。十几家铺子、几十户住家紧紧夹着一条青石板街。铺子和铺子是那样的挤密,以至一家煮狗肉,满街闻香气;以至谁家娃儿跌交碰脱牙、打了碗,街坊邻里心中都有数;以至妹娃家的私房话,年轻夫妇的打情骂俏,都常常被隔壁邻居听了去,传为一镇的秘闻趣事,笑料谈资。偶尔某户人家弟兄内讧,夫妻斗殴,整条街道便会骚动起来,人们往来奔走,相告相劝,如同一河受惊的鸭群,半天不得平息。不是逢圩的日子,街两边的住户还会从各自的阁楼上朝街对面的阁楼搭长竹竿,晾晒一应布物:衣衫裤子,裙子被子。山风吹过,但见通街上空“万国旗”纷纷扬扬,红红绿绿,五花八门。再加上悬挂在各家瓦檐下的串串红辣椒,束束金黄色的苞谷种,个个白里泛青的葫芦瓜,形成两条颜色富丽的夹街彩带……人在下边过,鸡在下边啼,猫狗在下边梭窜,另有一种风情,另成一番景象。(古 华:《芙蓉镇》)
The main street of Hibiscus was not big. Paved with flagstones it was wedged between a dozen shops and a few scores of houses. These buildings were so packed together that if one shop stewed dog-meat, the aroma filled the whole street; if some child fell and knocked out a tooth or smashed a bowl, the whole street knew of it; neighbors often overheard the secrets girls confided to each other and the jokes between young married couples, then regaled the whole town with these titbits. If brothers fell out or husband and wife came to blows, the whole place was in a turmoil as all rushed to intercede. On days when there was no market, people fixed up long bamboo poles between their upstairs windows and those across the street, to sun their clothes and bedding. The wind blowing from the hills made these flutter like flags all the colors of the rainbow. And the clusters of red peppers, golden maize cobs, pale green calabashes and gourds hanging from the eaves formed bright borders on either side. Below, people came and went, cocks crowed, cats and dogs padded to and fro—it was a distinctive sight. (杨宪益 译)
这也正如H. W. Fowler所说的:“Rhythmic speech or writing is like waves of the sea, moving onward with alternating rise and fall, connected yet separate, like but different, suggestive of some law, too complex for analysis or statement, controlling the relations between wave and wave, waves and sea, phrase and phrase, phrases and speech.”
英语里类似汉语的零句叫做破句(fragment)。这类句式没有完整的主谓结构,只有词、短语或从句,在英语里原属语法错误,一般仅用于对话、标题、告示等特定的语境,或用作修辞手段。与汉语相比,英语的破句不属于常规句式。汉语流散型句式与口语有密切的关系。“现代汉语的书面语同口语基本上是一致的,它是在口语的基础上产生和发展起来的。口语是书面语的源泉,对书面语始终起着决定性的作用。”
大汽车和小汽车。无轨电车和自行车。鸣笛声和说笑声。大城市的夜晚才最有大城市的活力和特点。开始有了稀稀落落的、然而是引人注目的霓虹灯和理发馆门前的旋转花浪。有烫了的头发和留了的长发。高跟鞋和半高跟鞋,无袖套头的裙衫。花露水和雪花膏的气味。城市和女人刚刚开始略略打扮一下自己,已经有人坐不住了。这很有趣。(王蒙)
Vans and cars. Buses and bikes. Hooting, chatting and laughing. A big city reveals the most of its vigor and character only in the night. There have appeared some neon lights and barber’ s poles, sparse but striking. Permed hair and long hair. High heels and semi-high heels, sleeveless dresses. Smells of toilet water and face creams. The city and women are just beginning to dress themselves up a little bit, and some people have already been upset. That’ s interesting.
总之,英语重形合,造句注重形式接应(formal cohesion),要求结构完整,句子以形寓意,以法摄神,因而严密规范,采用的是焦点句法;汉语重意合,造句注重意念连贯(semantic coherence),不求结构齐整,句子以意役形,以神统法,因而流泻铺排,采用的是散点句法。王力曾指出,“就句子的结构而论,西洋语言是法治的,中国语言是人治的。”所谓“法治”,即句子的形式严格受到语法的制约,如句子必须有主语和谓语动词,及物动词必须有宾语,这些“不管用得着用不着,总要呆板地求句子形式的一律”。所谓“人治”,即句子比较不受形式的约束,可以因表意的需要而加以变通,词语的分合伸缩比较灵活,“用得着就用,用不着就不用”,只要双方意思明白,就可以了。汉语的句子可以没有主语(如“下雨了”)、没有动词(如“我二十岁”),动词该带宾语的却不一定带宾语(如“词典来了,赶快去买吧”);英语句子除了必须有主语和谓语动词外,及物动词一定要带宾语,找不到宾语也要用主语的反身代词来作“替身”,如“Insects hide themselves in winter”,或用“It”来代替主语或宾语;‘We are born to slave it for our lord.”(W.Thackerav)至于虚词,如介词、连接词,用与不用,英语都有较为严格的区分,汉语则灵活得多了。
英语有综合语的特征,受形态的约束,因而“语法是硬的,没有弹性”;汉语是分析语,不受形态的约束,因而“语法是软的,富于弹性”。对此,O.Jespersen曾指出:“… analysis means suppleness,and synthesis means rigidity;in analytic languages you have the power of kaleidoscopically arranging and rearranging the elements that in synthetic forms are in rigid connection…”。
第三章 :形合与意合
( Hypotactic vs**.Paratactic****)**
所谓形合,指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形式手段(如关联词)连接起来,表达语法意义和逻辑关系。The American Heritage Dictionary给形合定义为,“The dependent or subordinate or relationship of clauses with connectives, for example, I shall despair if you don’t come.”英语造句主要采取形合(Hypotactic)。
所谓意合,指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接,句中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。The World Book Dictionary给意合定义为:“The arranging of clauses one after the other without connectives showing the relation between them.Example: The rain fell;the river flooded; the house washed away.”汉语造句主要采用意合法(Parataxis)。
一、英语的形合法
英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句,注重显性接应(overt cohesion),注重句子形式,注重结构完整,注重以形显义。英语句中的连接手段和形式(cohesive ties)不仅数量大,种类多,而且用得十分频繁:
1.关系词和连接词。关系词包括关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词,如who,whom,whose,that,which,what,when,where,why,how等,用来连接主句和定语从句、主语从句、宾语从句或表语从句。连接词包括并列连词和从属连词,如and,or,but, yet,so,however,as well as,(n)either…(n)or…及when,while,as,since,until,so…that,unless,lest等,用来连接词、词组、分句或状语从句。英语造句几乎离不开这些关系词和连接词,汉语则少用甚至不用这类词,如:
1) All was cleared up some time later when news came from a distant place that an earthquake was felt the very day the little copper ball fell.
过了一些时候,从远方传来了消息:在小钢球坠落的当天,确实发生了地震。这一切终于得到了澄清。
2)When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect,it seems to me that there are two causes,of which one goes much deeper than the other.
为什么如此众多的美国人不能如想象中那样幸福呢?我认为原因有二,而两者之间又有深浅之分。
3)It had been a fine,golden autumn,a lovely farewell to those who would lose their youth, and some of them their lives,before the leaves turned again in a peacetime fall.
那是个天气晴朗、金黄可爱的秋天,美好的秋色为那些青年们送别。待到战后和平时期,黄叶纷飞的秋天再度来临时,当日的青年已经失去了青春,有的丧失了生命。
4)It is flattering to believe that they are too profound to be expressed so clearly that all who run may read,and very naturally it does not occur to such writers that the fault is with their own minds which have not the faculty of precise reflection.(W.S.Maugham:Lucidity,Simplicity,Euphony)
认为自己的思想深奥,不可能表达得很清楚,让任何人都能理解,这是一种虚荣的念头。这样的作家当然不会想到,问题还是出在自己脑子缺乏精确思考的能力。
5)It was what sentimentalists,who deal in very big words,call a yearning after the ideal, and simply means that women are not satisfied until they have husbands and children on whom they may center affections, which are spent elsewhere, as it were, in small change. (W.Thackeray:Vanity Fair)
一般情感主义者喜欢用大字眼,称之为对于理想爱情的渴望。换言之,他们认为女人的情感平时只能零星发泄,必须有了丈夫和孩子,情感收聚起来有了归宿,自己才能得到满足。
2.介词。介词包括简单介词(如with,to,in,of,about,between,through)、合成介词 (如inside,onto,upon,within,without,throughout)和成语介词 (如according to,along with,apart from,because of,in front of,on behalf of,with regard to)。根据G.Curme统计,英语各类介词共约286个。介词是英语里最活跃的词类之一,是连接词、语或从句的重要手段。R.Bander指出:“ A preposition may be defined as a connecting word showing the relation of a noun or substitute for a noun to some other word the sentence.…Prepositions appear constantly in English speech and writing.…Over ninety percent of preposition usage involves these nine prepositions:with,to,from,at,in,of,by,for and on.”英语造句几乎离不开介词,汉语则常常不用或省略介词:
1)The many colors of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside.
彩虹有多种颜色,外圈红,内圈紫。
2)He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession.
他有一种令人难堪的习惯:一会儿一个看法,自相矛盾,变化无常。
3)This was an intelligently organized and fervent meeting in a packed Town Hall, with Mr.Strong in the chair.
这是一次精心组织起来的会议。市政厅里济济一堂,热情洋溢,主持会议的是斯特朗先生。
4)Power can be transmitted over a great distance with practically negligible loss if it is carried by an electric current.
电流可以把动力传送到很远的地方,其消耗几乎可以忽略不计。
5)The present onslaught of vehicles poses a serious threat to urban life and pedestrian peace of mind.
当前,车辆横冲直闯,严重地威胁着城市生活,路上行人无不提心吊胆。
6)Change of information,if any,concerning the contents of this section will be found in the appendix at the end of this book.
本节内容如有更改,均见本书末附录。
7)She said,with perfect truth, that “it must be delightful to have a brother,”and easily got the pity of tender-hearted Amelia,for being alone in the world,an orphan without friends or kindred.(“Vanity Fair”)
她说道,“有个哥哥该多好啊,”这话说得入情入理。她没爹没娘,又没有亲友,真是孤苦伶仃。软心肠的阿米莉亚听了,立刻觉得她可怜。
3.其他连接手段,如形态变化形式,包括词缀变化,动词、名词、代词、形容词和副词的形态变化(如性、数、格、时、体、语态、语气、比较级、人称等)及其保持前后一致的关系(grammatical and notional concord),广泛使用代词以保持前呼后应的关系,以及使用“it”和“there”作替补词(expletives)起连接作用等等。英语常常综合运用上述的关系词、连接词、介词以及其他连接手段,把各种成分连接起来,构筑成长短句子,表达一定的语法关系和逻辑联系。如:
1)He boasts that a slave is free the moment his feet touch British soil and he sells the children of the poor at six years of age to work under the lash in the factories for sixteen hours a day.
他吹嘘说,任何奴隶一踏上英国的土地就获得自由,而他却出卖穷人家六岁的孩子到工厂干活,每天十六小时,受尽鞭打责骂。
2)They would have had to live the rest of their lives under the stigma that they had recklessly precipitated an action which wrecked the Summit Conference and conceivably could have launched a nuclear war.
他们恐怕免不了在有生之年要蒙受不洁之名,人们会说他们贸然采取行动,使最高级会议遭到搁浅,而且,可以设想,还可能挑起了一场核战争。
3)Could any spectacle,for instance,be more grimly whimsical than that of gunners using science to shatter men’s bodies while, close a hand, surgeons use it to restore them?
炮手用科学毁坏了人体,而就在附近,外科医生用科学使其恢复健康,还有什么情景比这更加荒谬绝伦?
4)There is nothing more disappointing to a hostess who has gone to a lot of trouble or expense than to have her guest so interested in talking politics or business with her husband that he fails to notice the flavor of the coffee, the lightness of the cake, or the attractiveness of the house, which may be her chief interest and pride.(“Western Manners”)
最令女主人失望的是,她花了许多心神或费用来招待客人,可是这位客人只顾津津有味地与她的丈夫谈政治、谈生意,却没注意到香喷喷的咖啡,松软的糕点,或房间内讲究的陈设,而这些却可能是她感到兴趣并引以自豪的主要所在。
5)Eyen in its blasted condition, with boards and sackings in most of the windows, with its thick dust and its bare room, with its cracked plaster and its damaged roofs, the hotel had been a new world, a breadth and dignity,full of adventure possibilities.(“Betrayed Spring”)
这家旅馆,尽管被炸坏了,窗户大多钉上了木板,并堆上了沙包,到处是厚厚的尘土,房间空空荡荡,墙上的石灰也裂了,屋顶也坏了,可总是一个宽阔庄严的新天地,值得去探索。
二、汉语的意合法
汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段,注重隐性连贯(covert coherence),注重逻辑事理顺序,注重功能、意义,注重以神统形。汉语的形合手段比英语少得多:没有英语所常用的那些关系代词、关系副词、连接代词和连接副词;介词数量少,大约只有30个,而且大多是从动词“借”来的。王力指出,汉语“所谓欧化的介词当中,其实有大部分不是真的介词,只是靠着西文的反映,就显得它们有介词性罢了。’’汉语一些介词,如“在”、“向”、“进”、“到”、“沿”、“过”、“从”、“为”、“给”、“用”、“拿”、“依”等,原均为动词。介词和连词常常可以省略,甚至不用,尤其是口语,用了反而显得多余。高名凯指出,“汉人平常说话不喜欢用太多没有基本意义的虚词,只是把事情或意思排列起来,让人去了解这两个事情或两个意思之间所生的关系如何。……不过这并不是说汉人说话不合逻辑,因为不加虚词,我们也知道这句话的意思。” 汉语没有词的形态变化,没有“it”和“there”这类替补词,代词也用得较少,总之,“尽量省去一切不必要的形式装置”,重意合而不重形合,词语之间的关系常在不言之中,语法意义和逻辑联系常隐含在字里行间。汉语的意合法往往采用以下手段:
1.语序。汉语的许多主从复句,虽然不用关联词,形式类似并列复句,但分句含义却有主有次。从句若前置,一般有“因为”、“如果”、“虽然”、“即使”等含义。据统计,汉语中三分之二的因果句不到必要时,不用关联词。先“因”后“果”,几乎不用“因为”,属常态;先“果”后“因”,大多用“因为”,属变态。如:
1. (因为)她不老实,我不能信任她。
Because she is not honest,I cant t trust her.
我不能信任她,因为她不老实。
I can’t trust her,because she is not honest.
2)人(若)不犯我,我(则)不犯人。
We will not attack unless we are attacked.
3)说是说了,没有结果。(=我虽然说了,但是没有结果。)
I’ve made proposals,but they proved futile.
4)打肿脸充胖子,吃亏是自己。
If you get beyond your depth,you will suffer.
5)人到事中迷,就怕没人提。
When a man is lost in a 1abyrinth,what he needs badly is a hint.
6)抓住了主要矛盾,一切问题就可以迎刃而解。
Once the principal contradiction is grasped,all problems can be readily solved.
2.反复、排比、对偶、对照等。这些句式词句整齐、匀称,往往不用关联词:
1)他不来,我不去。(=如果他不来,我就不去。)
f he won’t come here,I’ll not go there.
2)种瓜得瓜,种豆得豆。
As you sow,so will you reap.
3)不怕慢,只怕站。
It’s better to move ahead slowly than just to mark time.
4)吃苦在前,享乐在后。
Be the first to bear hardships and the 1ast to enjoy comforts.
5)聪明一世,糊涂一时。
Smart as a rule,but this time a foo1.
6)不知苦中苦,哪知甜中甜?
If you have never tasted the bitterness of gall,how can you know the sweetness of honey?
7)东边闪电出日头,西边闪电必有雨,南边闪电天气热,北边闪电有雷雨。
If it lightens in the east,it will be sunny;if it lightens in the west,it will be rainy;if it lightens in the south,it will be sultry;if it lightens in the north,it will be stormy.
3.紧缩句。这类意合句式是由复句紧缩而成的。“所谓‘紧’,就是紧凑,是取消各分句之间的语音停顿,让它们紧紧地挨在一起;所谓‘缩’,就是压缩,是略去原来分句的一些词语,让它们简约一些。” 这类句式简明紧凑,分句之间的语法关系和逻辑联系往往是隐含的:
1)有饭大家吃。(=如果有饭的话,那就让大家吃吧)
Let everybody share the food if there is any.
2)不到黄河心不死。
Until all is over, ambition never dies.
3)狐狸再狡猾也斗不过好猎手。
However sly a fox may be,it is no march for a good hunter.
4)狼披羊皮还是狼。
A wolf remains a wolf even though it is in sheep’s clothing.
5)问遍千家成行家。
Learn from numerous advisers, and you will become a master.
6)上梁不正下梁歪。
If the upper beam is not straight,the lower ones will go aslant.
When those above behave unworthily,those below will do the same.
4.四字格。四字格是汉语里广为运用的语言形式。吕叔湘指出,“2+2的四音节是现代汉语里的一种重要的节奏倾向。……四音节的优势特别表现在现代汉语里存在着大量四音节熟语即‘四字格’这一事实上。” 四字格往往历经锤炼,言简意赅,常常是意合法的佳作:
1)不进则退
He who does not advance falls backward.
Move forward, or you’ll fall behind.
2)酒醉智昏
When wine is in, wit is out.
3)物极必反
Once a certain limit is reached, a change in the opposite direction is inevitable.
4)玩火自焚
Whoever plays with fire will perish by fire.
5)欲盖弥彰
The more one tries to hide,the more one is exposed.
6)远交近攻
Befriend those far away while attacking those nearby.
王力指出,“西洋语的结构好象连环,虽则环与环都联络起来,毕竟有联络的痕迹;中国语的结构好象无缝天衣,只是一块一块的硬凑,凑起来还不让它有痕迹。西洋语法是硬的,没有弹性的;中国语法是软的,富于弹性的。惟其是硬的,所以西洋语法有许多呆板的要求,如每一个clause里必须有一个主语; 惟其是软的,所以中国语法只以达意为主,如初系的目的位可兼次系的主语,又如相关的两件事可以硬凑在一起,不用任何的connective word.” E.Nida也认为,英汉在语言学上最重要的一个区别就是形合和意合的不同。
英语注重形合,注重结构、形式,常常借助各种连接手段,因而比较严谨(preciseness);汉语注重意合,注重功能、意义,常常不用或少用连接手段,因而比较简洁(conciseness)。英译汉时,往往要先分析句子的结构、形式,才能确定句子的功能、意义;汉译英时,往往要先分析句子的功能、意义,才能确定句子的结构、形式。如:
1)A body in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
没有外力作用,运动的物体就连续作匀速直线运动。
2)There is no more difference,but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher who weights out his goods in common scales and the operations of a chemist who performs a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graduated weights.(T.H.Huxley)
科学家的思维活动和普通人的思维活动之间存在着差别,这种差别就跟一个面包师或者卖肉者和一个化验师在操作方法上的差别一样。前者用普通的秤称东西的重量,而后者则用天平和精密砝码进行艰难复杂的分析。其差别不过如此而已。
3)The growth of class consciousness among the workers was inhibited by continued high levels of employment and rising earnings for almost 15 years, combines with the propaganda of views in the 1abor movement reflecting the influence of Keynesian theories about the ability of capitalism to solve permanently the problem of “boom and bust” through a “managed economy” of built-in stabilizers.
将近十五年来,就业率一直保持高水平,工资收入不断增长。凯恩斯有一套理论,认为资本主义制度有能力通过名曰“内在稳定因素”的“国家调节经济”永远解决繁荣与危机交替出现的问题。而劳工运动则宣传反映凯恩斯理论影响的观点。这种种因素结合在一起,就使 工人阶级觉悟的提高受到阻碍。
4)从其交友知其为人。
Tell me whom you associate with and I’ll tell you who you are.
5)我过去所受的那些委屈和刺激,比起他来,也只是小巫见大巫,算不得什么。(李六如:《六十年的变迁》)
What little pain and adversity I’ve experienced so far are simply nothing compared to what he’s gone through.
6)我们约他做攻守同盟,本想彼此提携,有福同享,有祸同当,不料他倒先来沾我们的光了。(茅盾:《子夜》)
When we got him to go in with us it was on the understanding that we sink or swim together, but now it turns out that he was only out to sponge on us!
7)再试纺,顶多忙一阵子,过了几天,还不是外甥打灯笼——找舅(照旧)。(周而复:《上海的早晨》)
And if we’re now going to have a check spinning it, it’ll only mean that we’ll be busier than ever for a spell and then after a few days things will be back to what they were before.
三、形合、意合与文体
英语和汉语都有形合句和意合句。一般地说,英语形合句多,汉语意合句多,但其多少与文体密切相关。书面语没有口语的辅助语言手段,如表情、手势、语调等,又要表达复杂的逻辑关系,必须常常借助关联词语和其他形式手段,因而形合句比口语多。现代汉语受西方语言的影响,形合句比古代汉语多。O.Jespersen对古汉语曾评论说:“Undoubtedly Chinese of the old style carries with it an impressive dignity through the immediate succession of nothing but momentous notions;it acquires a simple greatness because it throws away all unnecessary accessory elements and thus,as it were,takes night to pure thinking.” 从古代汉语流传下来的大量成语、谚语,大多匀称对偶,节奏铿锵,琅琅上口,言筒意赅,至今仍为汉语意合句的重要组成部分。现代庄重文体、科技文体和论述文体较多采用形合句,以表达清晰的逻辑关系和复杂的思想内容。例如严复以下几段有关翻译的著名论述,用汉代以前的雅语,常以单句代复句,以平列代主从,多取意合法:
译事三难信达雅。求其信已大难矣。顾信矣不达。虽译犹不译也。则达尚焉。……
易曰修辞立诚。子曰辞达而已。又曰言之无文。行之不远。三者乃文章正轨。亦即为译事楷模。故信达而外。求其尔雅。此不仅期以行远已耳。实则精理微言。用汉以前字法句法。则为达易。用近世利俗文字。则求达难。往往抑义就词。毫厘千里。审择于斯二者之间。夫固有所不得已也。岂钓奇哉。……
新理踵出。名目纷繁。索之中文。渺不可得。即有牵合。终嫌参差。译者遇此。独有自具衡量。即义定名。……一名之立。旬月踟蹰。……(严复:《天演论·译例言》)
这几段论述若译成现代汉语和现代英语,则多取形合法:
翻译工作有三大困难:忠实、通顺、典雅。要做到忠实于原文已经很不容易,但如果只注意忠实于原文而忽略了译文的通顺,那么,即使译了,也等于没译,可见译文通顺也是需要的。……
《易经》指出:“修辞要注重表达准确。”孔子也说过:“做文章,不过是把意思表达得明畅罢了。”他又说:“言语缺乏文采,就不能扩大影响。”可见,这三方面都是写作所必须遵循的原则,也是翻译的标准。因此,除了表达准确、通顺之外,我还力求文字古雅,这不仅仅是为了扩大影响而已。其实,那些精辟的道理和微妙的语言,用汉代以前的词法和句法去翻译,倒还易于表达,而用现代通俗文字去翻译。反而不容易表达得明畅,而且往往为了迁就词句而损害原意,使得译文差之毫厘,谬以千里。对以上两种情况,经过反复考虑,我选择了前者。这乃是出于不得已,而非追求文字的新奇啊!……
新的学说接二连三地出现,新的名称也随之多了起来。这些新名称,从汉语里无法找到,即使勉强牵连凑合,毕竟嫌有出入。译者遇到这种情况,只有运用自己的判断力,按照新名称的含义去确定译名。……有时为了确定一个译名,往往要花上十天或个把月的时间,反复推敲。……
Translation has to do three difficult things:to be faithful,expressive,and elegant.It is difficult enough to be faithful to the original,and yet if a translation is not expressive.it is tantamount to having no translation.Hence expressiveness should be required too.…
The Book of Change says that the first requisite of rhetoric is truthfulness.Confucius says that expressiveness is all that matters in language.He adds that if one’s1anguage lacks grace.it won’t go far.These three qualities,then,are the criterion of good writing and,I believe,of good translation too.Hence besides faithfulness and expressiveness.I also aim at elegance.I strive for elegance not just to make my translations travel far,but to express the original writer’s ideas better,for I find that subtle thoughts are better expressed in the vocabulary and syntax of pre—Han prose than those of the vulgar writings of today.Using the latter often leads to distortion of meaning,which,however slight,results in vast misunderstanding.Weighing the pros and cons,I opted for the former,as a matter of necessity,not trying to be different.…
New ideas come one after another,with a multiplicity of new names.No equivalents can be found for them in Chinese.Straining for resemblances,one gets only contrarieties.The translator is obliged to use his own discretion,doing his best to find a term suited to the sense.…A single term often took weeks and months of deliberation.…(王佐良译)
意合法在汉语里属“常态”,在英语里属“变态”。这类“变态”常见于一些简练的谚语、表达复合句内容的简单句,以及表达状语从句意义的定语从句,如:
1)Man proposes,God disposes.
谋事在人,成事在天。
2)The best shortcut would still take five hours.
(即使)抄近路也要五小时。
3)A successful old age is easiest for those who have strong impersonal interests involving appropriate activities.(Bertrand Russell)
如果老年人对个人以外的事情怀有强烈的兴趣,并参加适当的活动,他们的晚年是最容易过得好的。
4)不打不相识。
Out of blows friendship grows.
No discord,no concord.
5)敌进我退,敌驻我扰,敌疲我打,敌退我追。
The enemy advances,we retreat;the enemy camps,we harass;the enemy tires,we attack;the enemy retreats,we pursue.
第四章:繁复与简短
(Complex Vs.Simplex)
从属结构(subordination)是现代英语最重要的特点之一。F.Crews认为,“subordination,the placing of certain elements in modifying roles,is a fundamental principle of writing.” 从句和短语可以充当句子的主要成分和从属成分。从句可以层层环扣,短语往往不短,书面语句子常常显得又繁又长(1ong-winded),有的句子可长达100至200个单词,甚至长至整个大段。现代英语虽较不常用特长的句子,但包孕式的复合句(complex sentences with embedded clauses)仍很常见,因而句子仍然具有一定的长度。据统计,专业作者写的句子平均长度为20个词,受过教育的人写的句子平均长度为25个词。总的看来,英语句子比汉语句子长得多。
汉语常用散句、松句、紧缩句、省略句、流水句或并列形式的复句(composite sentences),以中短句居多,最佳长度为7至12字。书面语虽也用长句,字数较多,结构较复杂,但常用标点把句子切开,与英语相比,还属短句。没有标点符号的一气呵成的类似英语的那种长句在汉语里是不正常的(例如本句)。汉语句子多数显得结构简化,无拖沓、盘错之感,“甚至有些西洋人看见了中国作品的译文,觉得简短可爱。”
英语书面语句子显得长而复杂,原因是多方面的。英语词语之间的语法关系,除了通过安排词序来表达外,还常常采用各种各样表示关系和连接的手段,如介词(词组)、连词、关系代词、关系副词、连接代词、连接副词、非谓语动词(词组)、词的形态变化(如词尾变化、格的变化)等等。英语用来连接词、语的这些手段,比起汉语来,显得非常丰富而灵活。另一方面,能充当英语句子成分的,有长短几乎不加限制的短语和从句,从句中还可以有从句(dovetail several dependent clauses into each other),再加上各种并列成分,附加成分(如同位语、插入语、独立成分),尤其是形形色色的修饰成分,这样一来,这些各式各样的长短成分,通过丰富而灵活的连接手段,可以接成枝叶横生的“参天大树”。英语句子呈句首封闭、句尾开放。定语修饰语可以后置,又有关系词与被修饰语连接,句子可以不断向句尾扩展、延伸。英语还常用先行代词“it”及其他预指性代词,把真正的主语或宾语移到后面,并根据需要加以不断扩充,形成句子的末端重量(end-weight)。英语以主谓核心协调(S-V concord)控制全句结构,有词的形态变化约束,有连接手段连接词语和从句,有代词使词语前呼后应,这些因素都可以使冗长的句子不致流散。R.Eastman指出,“The English sentence is extremely plastic.It can be enlarged,combined,adjusted with almost any degree 0f fineness to accommodate a writer’ thought.”因此,英语句子,尤其是书面语的句子,常常是环扣相嵌,盘根错节,句中有句。换言之,英语造句主要采用“楼房建筑法”(architecture style),句子一般有完整的结构,许多有关的成分通过各种表示关系和连接的手段组成关系词结集(conjunctive-nexus),直接或间接地粘附在这个句子结构的里外、前后、左右或中间,整个句子成了庞大复杂的“建筑物”。
以下长句引自美国官方的一篇文章,原用以讽刺官场中流行的冗长句式。此句是作者为嘲弄不良文风而故意仿造的parody,虽不能代表英语的常规句式,但也可以看出英语句子的“繁复”能够达到何种程度:
The present movement toward simplification of language and directness of statement in government writing and the elimination of jargon and unnecessary wordiness as well as the use of short,direct statements instead of long sentences which are difficult to understand because the reader is apt to get lost before he arrives,if he ever does,at the meaning intended by the writer,is a valuable attempt to achieve economy and intelligibility,for many pamphlets.instruction sheets,ordinary memoranda and assorted missives circulated through the War Department fail of their primary purpose through befogging their contents by use of pseudo-official phraseology which only the initiated can hope to understand and of which even they cannot be certain without reference either to the key works needed for translating them or to their own garbled and confused memories of dealing,usually without much success and always after a long period of time and travail,with similar kinds of wording in similar situations,so,though don’ t be too hopeful,for someone with unusual gifts and energy in applying them will manage triumphantly to misunderstand you no matter what you say or how you say it,try saying what you have to say as simply and as briefly as you can,and then after you’ve·66。said it。stop saying it and don’t say it any more.
相比之下,汉语没有形态变化,少用甚至不用关联词,词语之间的语法关系主要是通过安排词序和使用助词来表达的,词的先后次序一般是按照时间顺序和逻辑关系来排列的。换言之,汉语造句主要采用“流水记事法”(chronicle style),常用分句或流水句来逐层叙述思维的各个过程(streamline the thoughts)。这些特点,大大限制了汉语单句的长度。此外,汉语定语修饰语一般前置,一个单词所能承受的修饰词语是很有限的。一个名词前面不可“的”“的”(定语)不已,一个动词前后也不可“地”地”(状语)或“得”“得”(补语)不已。一个单词若有两个以上稍长的修饰语,就显得“负荷过重”了。汉语句子呈句首开放、句尾收缩,句子不能象英语那样层层环扣、向后不断扩展延伸。汉语的复句与英语的复合句所指的范围也不同。汉语复句指的是“有两套以上彼此不作句子成分的结构中心(或单句形式)”。联合复句表示并列、连贯、递进、选择等关系,大体相当于英语的并列句;偏正复句表示因果、假设、条件、让步、相承、目的、时间、比较等关系,大体相当于英语带状语从句的复合句。因此,严格说来,汉语没有象英语那样的主语从句、宾语从句、表语从句、定语从句、同位语从句等语法概念。虽然汉语也有句子结构作整个句子的成分(如主语、表语、宾语、定语、状语、补语),其作用相当于英语的从句,但这些句子结构一般都是寥寥数语的小句或主谓词组,整个句子还可仍然是单句。汉语的许多复句由于省略关联词和标点符号,可压缩成紧缩句。这种句式结构紧凑,言简意赅,最能体现汉语的特色。此外,汉语还常用松散句,多用省略句、无主句,少用虚词、附加成分或联合成分,句子松散、舒缓、轻松、活泼,显得简短,无冗长之感。王力指出,“中国人作文虽讲究炼句,然其所谓炼句只是着重在造成一个典雅的句子,并非要扩充句子的组织。恰恰相反,中国人喜欢用四个字的短句子,以为这样可以使文章道劲。由此看来,西洋人做文章把语言化零为整,中国人做文章几乎可以说是化整为零。”
根据上述的英汉特点,英译汉时常常要破句重组,化繁为简,如:
1)In the doorway lay at least twelve umbrellas of all sizes and colors.
门口放着一堆雨伞,少说也有十二把,五颜六色,大小不一。(比较:门口放着至少有十二把五颜六色、大小不一的雨伞。)
2)There are many wonderful stories to tell about the places I visited and the people I met.
我访问了一些地方,遇到了不少人。要谈起来,奇妙的事儿可多着哩。(比较:关于我所访问的一些地方和遇见的不少人有许多奇妙的故事可以讲。)
3)Can you answer a question which I want to ask and which is puzzling me?
我有一个问题弄不懂,想请教你,你能回答吗?(比较:你能回答一个使我弄不懂而又想问你的问题吗?)
4)If the man who was seen to take an umbrella from the City Church last Sunday evening does not wish to get into trouble,he will return the umbrella to No.10 Broad Street.He is well known.
上星期日傍晚。有人曾见某君在市教堂取走雨伞一把。取伞者如不愿卷入纠纷,还是将伞送至布劳德街十号为妙。此君为谁,尽人皆知。
- Gentlemen,I am ashamed to see men embarked on so great and g1orious an undertaking,as that of robbing the public, so foolishly and weakly dissenting among themselves.(Fielding:Jonathan Wild)
诸位先生,有些人正在干着一番光荣而伟大的事业,那就是掠夺大众。这时候,他们居然这么愚蠢,这么虚弱,在自己人中间发生内讧。对于这些,我真觉得丢脸。
英语注重形合,句子结构可以借助各种连接手段加以扩展和组合,形成纷繁复杂的长句;汉语注重意合,少用甚至不用连接词语,因而语段结构流散,但语意层次分明。英语长句的汉译常常要采用分解、拆散和重组的变通手段进行灵活处理:
1)Many man—made substances are replacing certain natural materials because either the quantity of the natural product can not meet our ever—increasing requirement,or,more often,because the physical properties of the synthetic substance, which is the common name for man— made materials,have been chosen,and even emphasized,so that it would be of the greatest use in the fields in which it is to be applied.
人造材料通称为合成材料。许多人造材料正在代替某些天然材料。这或者是由于天然物产的数量不能满足日益增长的需要。或者往往是由于人们选择了合成材料的一些物理性质并加以突出而造成的。因此,合成材料在拟用的领域中将具有极大的用途。
2)Closely linked with this commitment is the new last paragraph of the preamble which reaffirms that principle of the Charter of the United Nations in accordance with which Member States must refrain from the use of force or the threat of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any State and which declares that the establishment and the maintenance of international peace and security are to be promoted with the least diversion for armaments of the world’s human and economic resources·
与这一承诺密切相连的是序言中新增加的最后一段。它重申联合国宪章的一条原则,即会员国不得使用武力或武力威胁来侵犯任何国家的领土完整或政治独立,并且声明要尽量减少把世界人力及经济资源用于军备,以促进国际和平与安全的建立与维护。
3)But the mingled reality and mystery of the whole show,the influence upon me of the poetry,the lights,the music,the company,the smooth stupendous changes of glittering and brilliant scenery,were so dazzling,and opened up such illimitable regions of delight,that when I came out into the rainy street,at twelve o’clock at night,I felt as if I had come from the clouds,where I had been leading a romantic life for ages,to a bawling,splashing, link—lighted,umbrella-struggling,hackney-coach-jostling,pattern-clinking,muddy,miserable world.(Charles Dickens:David Copperfield)
整个演出既具有现实感又富有神秘色彩。诗歌、灯光、音乐、演员,光耀夺目、变幻神奇的舞台背景,感染了我。整个场面是这样地令人眼花缭乱、心旷神怡。当我在午夜时分走出戏院来到雨淋淋的街道上时,我感到自己刚才仿佛是在仙境中传奇般地生活了好久,而现在则已脱离了这个仙境来到了另外一个世界。这里是一片叫喊声,一阵阵飞溅开来的泥浆,一盏盏路灯,一把把挤来挤去的雨伞,一辆辆争先恐后的马车,一串串踢踢嗒嗒的木鞋声,一片泥泞,一片悲惨。
有些长句,结构十分复杂,译成汉语时,不仅要先对句子进行解剖,而且要根据意思加以改写,这样才比较容易下笔,如:
原文:Oh,Simplicio,if I should succeed in convincing you of the artfulness—though it is no great artistry—of this author, I should rouse you to wonder—and also to indignation—when you discovered how he, covering his cunning with the veil of your naivete and that of other mere philosophers,tries to insinuate himself into your good graces by gratifying your ear and puffing up your ambition,pretending to have convicted and silenced these trifling astronomers who wanted to assail the ineradicable inalterability of the Peripatetic heavens,and what is more, to have struck them dumb and overpowered them with their own weapons.
改写:Oh,Simplicio,I wish I could convince you of the artfulness—though it is no great artistry—of this author.He, covering his cunning with the veil of your naivete and that of other mere philosophers,tries to insinuate himself into your graces.He regards these astronomers who wanted to assail the ineradicability and inalterability of the Peripatetic heavens as trifling only,and pretends to have convicted and silenced them, and what is more.to have struck them dumb and overpowers them with their own weapons.In this way he gratifies your ear and puffs up your ambition.When you discovered how he did this,I should rouse you to wonder—and also to indignation.(周煦良改写) ‘
汉译:啊,辛普利邱,但愿我能够说服你,使你看出这位作者的伎俩——虽则并不是怎样高明的伎俩。他利用你的天真和其他不懂天文学的哲学家的天真,为自己打掩护,企图博取你们的欢心。他把那些想要攻击逍遥学派天界的稳固性和不可动摇性的天文学家,说成是毫不足道的,并自命已经驳倒他们,使他们无辞以答;不但如此,他还自命用他们自己的武器驳得他们哑口无言,无力还击。他就是用这种伎俩使你觉得娓娓动听,并鼓起你的无名勇气,如果你一旦发现他是怎样做到这样的,我当会引起你的惶惑——并且使你感到愤概。(周煦良译)
汉语的分句或流水句,译成英语时,常常要化简为繁,组合成复合句或长句,如:
1)老栓正在专心走路,忽然吃了一惊,远远地看见一条丁字街,明明白白横着。他便退了几步,寻找一家关着门的铺子,蹩进檐下,靠门立住了。(鲁迅:《药》)
Absorbed in his walking,Old Shuan was startled when he saw the cross road lying distinctly ahead of him.He walked back a few steps to stand under the eaves of a shop in front of its closed door.
2)因为距离远,又缺乏交通工具,农村社会是与外界隔绝的。这种隔绝状态,由于通讯工具不足,就变得更加严重了。
The isolation of the rural world because of distance and the 1ack of transport facilities is compounded by the paucity of the information media.
3)原来悟空手疾眼快,正在那混乱之时,他拔下一根毫毛,叫声“变!” 就变做他的本相。(吴承恩:《西游记》)
As Sun Wukong was deft of hand and quick of eye,he plucked one of the hairs from his body in the midst of the fray and shouted “Change!” It changed into his own double.
4)他这时已是将近六旬的人,一表人才,高个儿,眉目清秀,头发又多又黑,略带花白,恰好衬出他那堂堂的仪表。
He was at this time in his late fifties,a tall,elegant man with good features and thick dark hair only sufficiently graying to add to the distinction of his appearance.
5)我们不知不觉地朝公园走去。公园就在人行桥那边,桥下很深的地方,汹涌的河水滚滚流过。
Somehow our path took us toward the park。across the footbridge high above the rolling waters of the river.
6)倾刻之间,滚滚的浊水象堵墙一般压了下来,一古脑儿连人带车都给冲走了。这情景,直到现在还印在我的脑海里。
The image of a sudden wall of dark water carrying the man and his car away in an instant is still imprinted on my mind.
英汉修辞学都主张长短句交替、单复句相间。过分使用长句或短句都会产生单调感(monotony).H.J.Tichy认为,“Variety in sentence length is much more important than average length.”他认为句子的长短取决于作者和读者的年龄、教育程度、阅读经验、写作的题材、文体、强调及句式变换的需要等因素。
英汉句式的繁与简,也是相对而言的。现代英语与17世纪的英语相比,已渐渐简化,但冗长的句式仍为一种通病。如今许多英美写作教科书都劝导作者忌用长而繁的句式,多用简而明的“plain English”.E.Gowers指出:“The most prevalent disease in present-day writing is a tendency to say what one has to say in as complicated a way as possible.Instead of being simple,terse and direct,it is stilted,long-winded and circumlocutory;instead of choosing the simple word it prefers the unusual;instead of the plain phrase the cliche.从Gowers所指出的这种英语通病看来,译者仍要常常面临这些复杂而冗长的句子。现代汉语受西方语言的影响,句子也比清代以前的长了,虽然如此,仍比不上英语。王力指出:“固然,现代的思想已经不是四字短句所能表达的了;但是我们希望顺其自然,适可而止。如果把句子勉强拉长到和中国的语言结构不能相容的地步,就未免太过了。”
繁或简,与文体很有关系,英汉皆然。一般说来,长句严密、周详、精确、细致,宜于阐述复杂的观点,抒发细腻的感情,描述具体的细节,常见于书面语,尤其是政论文、科技论文、公文或小说里的叙述与描写。短句简洁、明快、活泼、有力,宜于叙述事物,说明情况,抒发感情,对比强调,常见于口语,尤其是日常会话、辩论、演讲、台词、杂文、广播稿、儿童文学或小说里的人物对话。英汉互译时应注意繁简句式与文体的这种关系。
第五章:物称与人称
(Impersonal vs.Personal)
英语较常用物称表达法,即不用人称来叙述,而让事物以客观的口气呈现出来,有些英语写作论著称之为“the writer and the reader are out of the picture,hiding themselves behind impersonal language”.G.Leech和J.Svartvik在《英语交际语法》一书中指出:“Formal written language often goes with an impersonal style:i.e.one in which the speaker does not refer directly to himself or his readers,but avoids the pronouns I_,you__,we_. Some of the common features of impersonal language are passives,sentences beginning with introductory it,and abstract nouns.”该书以图书馆的一则通告为例:
It has been noted with concern that the stock of books in the library has been declining alarmingly.Students are asked to remind themselves of the rules for the borrowing and return of books,and to bear in mind the needs of other students.Penalties for overdue books will in the future be strictly enforced.
近来已注意到本馆存书惊人地减少,此事令人关切。现要求学生不要忘记借书还书规则,并考虑其他学生的需要。今后凡借书逾期不还者,必将严格按章处罚。
英语写作教科书常常劝告作者不要滥用这种非人称表达法,认为这会使文章缺乏“personal reference and human touch”,失去“people-to-people relationship”,显得“abstract and official”,甚至”cold and inhuman”.上述一例若多用人称表达,则可显得不那么正式:
The number of books in the library has been going down.Please make sure you know the rules for borrowing,and don’t forget that the library is for everyone’s convenience.So from now on,we’re going to enforce the rules strictly.You have been warned!
虽然如此,非人称表达法仍是英语常见的一种文风,尤其常见于书面语,如公文、新闻、科技论著以及散文、小说等文学作品。这种表达法往往使叙述显得客观、公正,结构趋于严密、紧凑,语气较为委婉、间接。
汉语则较注重主体思维,这种思维模式以“万物皆备于我”作主导,往往从自我出发来叙述客观事物,或倾向于描述人及其行为或状态,因而常用人称。当人称可以不言自喻时,又常常隐含人称或省略人称。汉语重人称,英语重物称,这一特点主要表现在如何使用主语和动词这两方面。
一、英语常用非人称主语,汉语常用人称主语
英语可用人称主语表达,也常用非人称主语表达。用非人称主语表达时,往往注重“什么事发生在什么人身上”,而汉语则较常用人称主语表达,往往注重“什么人怎么样了”,如:
1)What has happened to you?
你出了什么事啦?
2)An idea suddenly struck me.
我突然想到了一个主意。
3)A strange peace came over her when she was alone.
她独处时便感到一种特殊的安宁。
4)Not a sound reached our ears.(A.S.Hornby)
我们没有听到任何声音。
5)A great elation overcame them.
他们欣喜若狂。
6)Alarm began to take entire possession of him(W.Thackeray)
他开始变得惊恐万状。
英语用非人称作主语的句子大体可以分为以下两大类:
1.用抽象名词或无生命的事物名称作主语,同时又使用本来表示人的动作或行为的动词作其谓语,因而这种句式往往带有拟人化(personification)修辞色彩,语气含蓄,令人回味,反映了英美民族的幽默感。O.Jespersen指出,“There can be no doubt that the poetic tendency to personify lifeless things or abstract notions, for instance to apostrophize Death as if it were a living being,and the related representation in plastic art of such notions,are largely due to the influence of languages with sex-gender,chiefly,of course,Latin.’’汉语虽然也有用拟人法来描述抽象的概念或无生命的事物,如“什么风把你吹来的?”,“爱情把我们的心连在一起”,“高山低头,河水让路”,但这种表达法较常见于形象的比喻或轻松的文体,无论从使用的语境或出现的频率来看,都远远不及英语。汉人较缺乏幽默感,注重的是“什么人做什么事”,往往用人或比较确定的事物作主语。如:
1)From the moment we stepped into the People’s Republic of China, care and kindness surrounded us on every side. (Hewlett and Nowell Johnson:To China at Ninety)
一踏上中华人民共和国国土,我们就随时随地受到关怀与照顾。
2)Excitement deprived me of all power of utterance.
我兴奋得什么话也说不出来。
3)The thick carpet killed the sound of my footsteps.(Joseph:English 3200)
我走在厚厚的地毯上,一点脚步声也没有。
4)The happiness——the superior advantages of the young women round about her, gave Rebecca inexpressible pangs of envy.(W.Thackeray:Vanity Fair)
丽贝卡看见她周围的小姐那么福气,享受种种优越的权利,却有说不出的眼红。
5)The forty years,1840—80,brought almost ten million migrants to America.(P.Bromhead:Life in Modern America)
从1840至1880这四十年中,近一千万移民移居美国。
6)The little chap’s good—natured honest face won his way for him.
这小伙子长相老实,看上去脾气也好,到处有人缘。
7)My good fortune has sent you to me,and we will never part.(H.Andersen:The Little Mermaid)
我很幸运,能够得到你,让我们永不分离吧。
8)Friday started with a morning visit to the modern campus of the 22,000-student University of Michigan in nearby Ann Arbor,where the Chinese table tennis team joined students in the cafeteria Iine for lunch and later played an exhibition match.(“China U.S.Table Tennis”)
星期五那天,中国乒乓球队一早就到安亚伯附近去参观拥有两万两千名学生的密执安大学现代化校园。他们和该校学生在校内自助餐厅排队取午餐,然后举行了一场表演赛。
英语这类非人称主语句采用“无灵主语”(inanimate subject),表示抽象概念、心理感觉、事物名称或时间地点等,但谓语却常常使用“有灵动词”(animate verb),表示人或社会团体的动作和行为,如see,find,bring,give,escape,surround,kill,deprive,seize,send,know,tell,permit,invite,take,drive,prevent…from等。英语用“无灵主语”与“有灵动词”搭配的句式比汉语多,使用因为的场合也比汉语广。汉语的“有灵动词”一般只能与人称搭配,根据汉人的思维习惯,人或社会团体才有这类有意识、有意志的行为,非人类的、无生命的事物一般只能有一些无意识、无意志的状态、运动或变化。汉语“无灵主语”与“有灵动词”搭配通常用作一种修辞手段**——**拟人化:
北京目睹过许多伟大的历史事件。
Beijing has witnessed many great historical events.
星光很早以前就踏上了旅程。
The light from the stars started on its journey long long ago.
在汉英转换中,用“物称”代替“人称”常常是一种有效的手段,
1) 一看到那棵大树,我便想起了童年的情景。
The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my child—hood.
2)近来忙于其他事务,未能早些复信,深感抱歉。
I am very sorry that the pressure of other occupations has prevented me from sending an earlier reply to your 1etter.
3)恕我孤陋寡闻,对此关系一无所知。
My total ignorance of the connection must plead my apology.
4)凭良心讲,你待我礼貌有加,霉却受之有愧。
My conscience told me that deserved no extraordinary told me that I deserved no extraordinary politeness.
5)五四运动以后,开始了“新红学”时代,代表人物有胡适、俞平伯等这样一些学者。
The May Fourth Movement of 1919 saw the beginning of the “New Redo1ogy”,represented by scholars such as Hushi and Yu Pingbai.
6)小梅心地善良,性情温和,对她朋友这种没有心肝的行为,实在看不顺眼。
Xiaomei’s kindly and gentle nature could not but revolt at her friend’s callous behavior.
2.用非人称代词“it”作主语。代词“it”除了用来代替除人以外的生物或事物之外,还广泛用作填补词(expletive),如:
1)用作先行词(preparatory “it”),代替真正的主语或宾语(“to represent a whole group of words which it would not be convenient to put in the place required by the ordinary rules of word一order without causing ambiguity or obscurity”),如:
It never occurred to me that she was so dishonest.
我从来也没有想到她这么不老实。
It is not our view that the substance or the tone of his remarks this morning will contribute to creating a lasting peace in the Middle East.
我们认为,他今天上午发言的内容和口气都无助于在中东建立持久的和平。
2)用作虚义词(unspecified “it”),代替的主语是难以言明的现象或情形,如用以表示自然现象、时间、空间以及用于惯用语之中:
It’s only half an hour’s walk to the ferry.
只要走半个钟头就可以到轮渡。
How is it with the sick man?
那病人怎么样了?
3)用作强调词(emphatic “it”),引导所要强调的成分,也是一种形式主语:
It is in the hour of trial that a man finds his true profession.(B.Shaw)
人总是在面临考验的关头,才发现自己的专长。
It is a good horse that never stumbles.(proverb)
人有失误,马有失蹄。
英语的非人称代词“it”往往使句子显出物称倾向,汉语没有这类用法的非人称代词,因而常用人称,或省略人称,或采用无主句。此外,英语的“There be”句式及用不定代词“one”作主语的甸子也具有非人称倾向,汉语则采用比较具体的人称或事物作主语,或不用主语:
In 1958,there was a strike participated in by five thousand workers.
1958年,五千个工人参加了一次罢工。
One must be a servant before one can be a master.(proverb)
要当主人,先当仆人。
二、英语常用被动式,采用物称表达法;汉语常用主动式,采用人称、泛称或隐称表达法
英语的被动式,尤其是用“it”作主语的非人称被动式(impersonal passive),如it is believed,it is felt,it is thought等,往往不说出施动者(doer或agent),而让所叙述的事实或观点以客观(objective)、间接(indirect)和婉转(roundabout)的方式表达出来。 G.Leech和J.Svartvik指出,“The by-phrase containing the agent of a passive clause is only required in specific cases (in fact,about four out of five English passive clauses have no agent).The passive is especially associated with impersonal style (e.g.in scientific and official writing),where the question of who is the agent(i.e.who performs the action described by the verb)is unimportant and often irrelevant.这种不提及行为者的被动式 (agentless passive)最常见于公文文体(bureaucratese)、科技文体及新闻文体,其非人称倾向可以使口气显得客观公正,避免主观臆断,作者也可借此“drowsy passive smokescreen”而免于承担可能有错的责任(a pusillanimous shrinking from responsibility).正如 F.Crews所指出的,“Those who don’t want to accept responsibility for their actions or opinions have an intuitive fondness for the passive.”例如: A current search of the files indicates that the letter is n0 longer in this Bureau’s possession.It is noted that the letter was received two months ago,and after study,re- turned to your office.In view of the foregoing。it is regretted that your office has no record of its receipt.If the letter is found,it would be appreciated if this Bureau was notified at once.我们最近查找了卷宗,发现本局并无此信。可以肯定的是,我们于两个月前收到此信,经研究后,已寄还贵处。鉴于以上情况,贵处仍无收信的记录,我们感到遗憾。如果你们找到此信,请即通知本局,不胜感谢。
汉语没有英语这类多重被动式,没有用“it”作主语的非人称被动式,也少用被动式,而较多用主动形式表达被动意义。这与汉人的主体思维甚有关系。汉人的思维习惯重“事在人为”,人的动作和行为必然是由人做的,事或物不可能自己去完成这些动作和行为,因而表达时往往要说出施动者,常常采用人称表达法;若无法说出确定的人称,则采用泛称,如“有人”、“人们”、“人家”、“大家”、“别人”等;若无法采用泛称,则采用无人称(如“无主句”);当人称或泛称不言自喻时,又常常采用隐称——省略人称。即使是被动式,也常常指出施动者,虽然现代汉语有省略施动者的倾向。王力指出,“中国正常的被动式是必须把主事者说出的。”吕叔湘、朱德熙也指出:“在形式上,‘被’字底下一般要有宾语,表示主动者。”汉语若要表达类似英语那种被动式的客观口气,则常常采用无主句(subjectless sentences)、主语省略句(subject-omitted sentences)、祈使句或无形式标志的被动句(passives with no grammatical marks)。如:
1)发现了错误,一定要改正。
Wrongs must be righted when they are discovered.
2)看树看果实,看人看作为。
A tree is known by its fruit,and a man is known by his actions.
3)必须调整高等院校的专业设置,改进教学方法。
Specialties in colleges and universities should be adjusted and teaching methods improved.
4)只要知道电压和电流,就能确定电阻。
The resistance can be determined provided that the voltage and current are known.
5)当两个物体在一起摩擦时,电子便从一个物体转到另一个物体。
Whenever two objects are rubbed together,electrons are transferred from one object to the other.
第六章:被动与主动
(Passive vs.Active)
被动语态在英语里是一种常见的语法现象。在某些文体中,使用被动句几乎成了一种表达习惯(passive habit)。S.Baker在“The Practical stylist”一书中指出:“Our massed,scientific,and bureaucratic society is so addicted to the passive voice that you must constantly alert yourself against its drowsy, impersonal pomp.’’被动句促成了物称倾向,物称倾向也滋长了被动句。英语常用被动句,主要有以下几方面的原因:
一、施事的原因。人们表达思想的时候,通常使用主动句。但当主动句的施事(agent)由于以下的原因而不需要或不可能指明时,英语往往采用被动句:
1.施事未知而难以言明,如:
The murderer was caught yesterday,and it is said that he will be hanged.
凶手已于昨天被捕,据说他将会被绞死。
2.施事从上下文中可以不言自明,如:
She told me that her master had dismissed her.No reason had been assigned; no objection had been made to her conduct. She had been forbidden to appeal to her mistress.
她告诉我,她的男主人已解雇了她。男主人没有讲明任何理由,对她的行为没有任何异议,也不许她向女主人申诉。
3.施事不如受事重要,或受事需要强调,如:
Her only son was run over by a car.她的独子被汽车轧了。
有时为了隐去含糊的人称主语(vague pronoun subject),也用被动句:
At the tea party they served only tea and cake.
At the tea party only tea and cake were served.
茶会上只供应茶和饼。
4.由于特殊的原因而不要指明施事,如为了使叙述显得圆通、得体,或为了表达某种微妙的情绪(tact or delicacy of sentiment),例如:
Some things have been said here tonight that ought not to have been spoken.
今晚有人在此讲了些不该讲的话。
二、句法的要求。英语重形合,注重句法结构和表达形式。当主动式不便于表达时,出于造句的需要或修辞的考虑,往往采用被动式:
1.为了使句子承上启下、前后连贯、便于衔接,如:
Some kinds of plastics can be forced through machines which separate them into long,thin strings,called “fibres”, and these fibres can be made into cloth.
有几种塑料可以压入机器并分离成细长的纤维,这种纤维可以用来织布。
2.为了使句子平衡,保持末端中心(end focus)和末端重量(end weight),以符合主语简短、谓语复杂的表达习惯,如:
1 was astounded that he was prepared to give me a job.
他准备给我一份工作,这使我大吃一惊。
三、修辞的考虑。英语修辞学主张不要过分使用被动句,但适当使用被动句可以使表达方法灵活多变,避免句型单调,达到一定的修辞效果。例如使用被动式可以减少以填补词“it”、“there”引导的句式,使句子比较干脆、有力。试比较:
There are many ways to vary the basic English sentence pattern of subject—verb—object.
有许多方法可以变换英语“主一动一宾”基本句型。
The basic English sentence pattern of subject—vetb—object can be varied in many ways.
英语“主一动一宾”基本句型可以用许多方法加以变换。
四、文体的需要。某些文体较多使用被动句,以迎合其表达的需要。R.Quirk等人指出:
There is a notable difference in the frequency with which the active and passive voices are used.The active is generally the more common,but there is considerable variation among individual texts.The passive has been found to be as much as ten times more frequent in one text another.The major stylistic factor determining its frequency seems to be related to the distinction between informative and imaginative prose rather than to a difference of subject matter or of spoken and written English.The passive is generally more commonly used in informative than in imaginative writing,notably in the objective,non-personal style of scientific articles and news items.
这类信息性的(informative)文体主要指科技文体、新闻文体、公文文体及论述文体。科技论文注重事理和活动的客观叙述(impersonal activity seen objectively),力戒作者的主观臆断,因而常常避免提及施事。J.Perlmutter指出,“It’s traditional among technical writers to keep themselves in the background.to exclude personal pronouns and emphasize their work instead.”新闻报道注重口气客观、间接,叙事翔实、冷静(calm fact—teller),施事往往难以言明,也不宜言明。公文则注重叙述公正、无私,口气客观、正式。R.Ahick对此曾作如下解释:
The passive voice allows one to express ideas without attributing them to a specific individual source.That is why it is so widely used in government communications,in which decisions and opinions are presumed to be those of the bureau or agency as a whole and not of individual officials.But legitimate use can easily turn into abuse.While the convention by which governmental edicts come from an impersonal entity can be defended,the indiscriminate use of the passive as a grammatical camouflage can also be a sign of moral weakness.Anyone who does not wish to assume personal responsibility for his statements finds an “out” by writing “it is directed that” instead of “I direct that,”or “it is the opinion of the firm” instead of “I think”.
The weak passive is used in newspaper writing for the same reason for which it is used in governmental correspondence:to achieve the impersonal note,and thus,in many instances。to disclaim direct responsibility for statements that are based on hearsay.
英语有过分使用被动语态的倾向,正式文体尤其如此。英美语言学者都主张多用主动语态,不要滥用被动语态。许多学者认为被动语态虽有不少用处,但显得罗唆(wordy)、间接(indirect)、无力(weak)、隐晦(oracular),故弄玄虚(mysterious)而深不可测(impenetrable),使交际者之间隔着一层被动的烟幕(passive smoke-screen)。R.Quirk曾引用D.Senior攻击被动语态的话,说它是“half the dilatoriness,the passing of the bucks,the shirking of responsibility,the lazy-mindedness,and the want of initiative…”.从众多语言学者批评滥用被动语态这一事实来看,英语作者出于各种考虑和需要,确实广泛使用着被动语态,尤其常用于上述的科技文章(technical writing)、报刊文章(newspaperese)和官方文章(bureaucratese)。
英语的结构被动句(syntactic passive)远比意义被动句(notional passive)多。一般地说,绝大多数的及物动词和相当于及物动词的短语都有被动式。被动式可借助形态变化来表示,因而形式很多:有限定动词多种时态的被动式,也有非限定动词(不定式、分词、动名词)的被动式;有非人称被动式(impersonal passive),如 it is believed等,也有双重被动式(double passive),如The date is expected to be announced soon,等等。这些结构被动式不仅应用范围很广,而且使用的频率也很高。意义被动式,即用主动的形式表达被动的意义,在英语里比较少见:
1)These products sell like hot cakes(= are so1d).
这些产品十分畅销。
2)The clock winds up at the back(=can be wound up).
这个钟在背面上发条。
3)She dresses beautifully (=is dressed).
她穿得很漂亮。
4)The room filled rapidly(=was filled).
房间很快就挤满了。
5)This kind of cloth washes very well(=can be washed).
这种布很经洗。
6)The book is printing(=is being printed).
这本书正在印刷。
7)The plan is working out(=is being worked out).
这项计划正在制定。
英语有些被动意义可用词汇手段来表达,如:
名词(短语):
examinee(=person examined) 受审查者;受试人;考生
referee(=to whom a question is referred) 受委托者
his astonishment(=he was astonished) 他感到惊讶
the man’s trial(=the man was tried) 那个人受审问
the imprisonment of the murderer(=the murderer was imprisoned) 凶手被监禁
形容词:
eatable(=fit to be eaten) 可吃的
desirable(=to be desired) 想要的
visible(=that can be seen) 可以看见的
respectable(=deserving respect)值得尊敬的
介词短语:
in one’s possession/in the possession of someone(= owned,held,kept or controlled by someone)为某人所有,在某人的控制之下
under the influence (of alcoho1)(=drunk;affected by alcohol) 酒醉
尽管英语的被动意义有时可以不用被动式来表达,但总的说来,英语常用结构被动式,少用意义被动式。与此相反,汉语则常用意义被动式,少用结构被动式。这一差异主要是因为:
一、汉语被动式的使用受到限制。
古代汉语的被动式是用“为”字或“为……所”结构来表示的(如《论语》“不为酒困”、杜甫诗题“茅屋为秋风所破”),没有“被字式”,被动意义一般借助主动式来表示。到了近代,汉语才有了“被字式”。“被”字是从“遭受”的意义演变而来的(如《后汉书·贾复传》“身被十二创”)。“被字式”曾被称为“不幸语态”(inflictive voice),主要用以表达对主语而言是不如意或不企望的事(unpleasant or undesirable),如“被捕”、“被杀”、“被剥削”、“被压迫”等。现代汉语受西方语言的影响,“被字式”的使用范围有所扩大,有时也可以用来表达并非不如意的事,如“被选为工会主席”、“被评为先进工作者”等,但大多数被动意义不用“被字式”。按照汉语的习惯,如果句中无须指出施事,主动意义与被动意义又不致发生混淆,一般就不用结构被动式(用介词或介词结构作状语),而用意义被动式。试比较:
It was done.这件事已做了。(不说“这件事已被做了”)
It was well done.这件事做得好。(不说“这件事已被做得好”)
It was poorly done.这件事做得不好。/这件事搞坏了。/这件事被弄坏了。/这件事给弄糟了。
英语表达这三种意义都可以用被动式,但汉语却用主动式,只有第三种意义才用被动式。
除了“被”字之外,“让”、“给”、“叫”、“挨”、“受”、“遭”、“蒙”等也可构成被动式,但也大多表达类似“被字式”的不如意或不企望的事,如:
1)庄稼让大水冲跑了。
The crops were washed away by the flood.
2)这股敌人全给游击队消灭了。
The whole horde of enemy soldiers was wiped out by the guerrillas.
3)叫你猜对了。
You’ve guessed right.
4)这家工厂在地震中遭到严重破坏。
This factory was seriously damaged during the earthquake.
与汉语相比,英语的被动式所表达的意义不受此类限制,它可以表达不如意的事,也可以表达如意的事,还可以表达中性的意义,其应用的范围要比汉语广得多。此外,英语的被动式是由系表结构演变而来的,可以表示动作(动句),也可以表示状态(静旬),而汉语的被动式却不是由系表结构演变而来的,一般只表示动作,而不表示状态。比较:
The glass is broken.(静句)
玻璃杯破了。(不用被动式)
The glass was broken by my brother.(动句)
玻璃杯被我弟弟打破了。(被动式)
玻璃杯是我弟弟打破的。(被动式的转换式)
The house is surrounded by trees.(静句)
房子周围都是树。(不用被动式)
The enemy was soon surrounded by our troops.(动句)
敌人很快被我军包围了。(被动式)
汉语的被动式除了受到意义的限制之外,还受到形式的限制。王力指出,“中国正常的被动式是必须把主事者说出的。’’吕叔湘、朱德熙也认为,“在形式上,‘被’字底下一般要有宾语,表示主动者。” 这种限制使得许多难以说出施事者的句子不能变成被动式,虽然现代汉语有突破这种限制的倾向。与此相反,英语大多数被动句却不必说出施事者。R.Quirk等人指出,“Unlike the active subject,the agent phrase is optional.1n fact,approximately four out of five English passive sentences have no expressed (surface) agent.R.Zandvoort也认为,“The passive is especially used in sentences in which it is unnecessary or undesirable to mention the agent,though the agent may be expressed by means of an adjunct with by”. O.Jespersen也有类似的观点。由于英汉这一表达形式的差异,英语被动式的使用比汉语自由得多了。
王力指出:“中国被动式用途之狭,是西洋被动式所比不上的。本来,西洋语言也是主动式多于被动式,尤其在英法语里}有些及物动词竟不能有被动式,例如英语的have,当其用于本义时,罕有用于被动式的。至于中国语呢,就有大部分的及物动词不能用被动式了。……‘被’字有‘遭受’的意思,因此,被动式所叙述者,对主位而言,必须是不如意或不企望的事。西洋的主动句大多数可转成被动句,中国则恰恰相反,主动句大多数是不能转成被动句的。’’例如:
1)He is respected by everybody.
人人都尊敬他。(不能译为“他被人人尊敬”)
2)The ceremony was abbreviated by rain.
因为下雨,仪式举行得很简短。
(不能译为“仪式被雨缩短了“)
3)John actually loved Mary and was loved in return.
约翰真的爱玛丽,而玛丽也爱约翰。(不能译为“约翰真的爱玛丽,也被玛丽爱”)
汉语常用主动形式表达英语的被动意义:
1)My holiday afternoons were spent in ramble about the surrounding country. (Washington Irving)
每逢假日的下午,我总要漫游周围的乡村。
2)Not only politeness but an attitude of reverence is demanded in church.
在教堂里,人们不仅要有礼貌,而且应该有一种虔诚的态度。
3)Language is shaped by, and shapes, human thought.
人的思想形成了语言,而语言又影响了人的思想。
4)Air that is cooled suddenly shrinks as some of the moisture is squeezed out.and clouds age formed.
突然冷却的空气,由于挤出了部分水份,体积收缩,就变成了云。
5)The Chinese Table Tennis Team also visited a Manhattan public school,delighting the pupils and being delighted by them.(“China U.S.Table Tennis)
中国乒乓球队还访问了曼哈顿的一所公立学校。队员们和学生们都为这次见面感到高兴。
6)Better my life should be ended by their hate,than that hated 1ife should be prolonged to live without your love.(“Romeo and Juliet”)
我宁可死在他们的仇恨之下,也不愿意延长这可恨的生命而得不到你的爱。
汉语的被动式既然受到意义和形式的限制,大多数被动意义就必须采用其他形式表达。
二、使用受事主语(Receptor subject)导致大量的“当然被动句”。
根据汉人的思维习惯,人的行为,必然是由人来完成的,事或物不可能完成人的行为。这种不言而喻的思维模式使人们在表达时常常把施事者隐含起来,而把注意力集中在受事者及行为本身,因此,受事者便充当了主语。另一方面,表示行为的动词没有形态变化,形式相同的动词可以表达主动意义,也可以表达被动意义,被动式的使用又受到很大的限制,因此,“受事+动词”的格式便成了汉人自古以来的一种表达习惯,其被动意义是由交际者的语感而共同认知的。广泛使用受事主语的倾向便导致了大量的“当然被动句”。一般说来,越是地道的汉语,这种句式越多:
1)昨晚我盖了两条被子。(不说“昨晚我被两条被子盖着”)
Last night 1 was covered up with two quilts.
2)这锅饭能吃十个人。(不说“这锅饭能被十个人吃”)
A pot of rice like this can feed 10 people.
3)一匹马骑两个人。(不说“一匹马被两个人骑”)
Two persons rode one horse.
4)困难克服了,工作完成了,问题也解决了。
The difficulties have been overcome,the work has been finished and the problem solved.
英语的被动式也常常译成汉语的主动式,如:
The first clock with weights and wheels is said to have been invented about the year 1000 A.D.,but clocks of that kind could not be carried about from place to place.Another four hundred and fifty years passed before the first watch was made in Germany. (“New Horizon English Reader”)
据说第一座装有钟摆和齿轮的钟大约是在公元一千年左右发明的。但是这样的钟不便携带。又过了四百五十年,第一块表才在德国制造出来。
三、当不需要或不可能说出施事者的时候,汉语可以采用无主句或主语省略句来保持句子的主动形式。英语注重句子结构齐整,句中不能没有主语,只好采用被动式或其他句式,以便于把施事者省略或隐含起来。如:
1)要制造飞机,就必须仔细考虑空气阻力问题。
Air resistance must be given careful consideration when the aircraft is to be manufactured.
2)为什么总把这些麻烦事推给我呢?
Why should all the unpleasant jobs be pushed on to me?
3)注意看看信的地址是否写对了。
Care should be taken to see that the letter is properly addressed.
4)用机械加工方法,特别是用磨削方法,可以获得最佳表面光洁度。
Best surface finish is provided by machining method, especially by grinding.
四、当施事者难以指明时,汉语还可以采用通称(generic person)或泛称(如“人”、“有人”、“人们”、“大家”、“人家”、“别人”、“某人”等)作主语,以保持句子的主动形式。英语也有不定代词(如one,some,any,every,all,somebody,anybody,everybody等),但其用途与汉语的通称不尽相同。英语在许多情况下宁可采用被动式也不用这类代词作主语,如大量的非人称被动式(impersonal passive)用“it”作形式主语:
It is said that… 有人说,据说,据云
It is well known that… 大家知道,众所周知
It is generally considered that… 人们普遍认为
当汉语不便于采用被动式时,常常采用通称作主语,如:
1)He has often, not always justly,been accused of indecisiveness.
人们常常指责他优柔寡断,虽然这种指责并不总是公正的。
2)Voices were heard calling for help.
有人听见呼救的声音。
3)Electrons are known to be minute negative charges of electricity.
大家知道,电子是极为微小的负电荷。
汉语用通称作主语的句式,也常常译成英语的被动式:
1)众所周知,中国人在四千年前就发明了指南针。
It is well known that the compass was invented in China four thousand years ago.
2)有人问她感觉如何,她说:“呼吸困难。”
When asked how she felt,she said:“I’m having trouble breathing.’’
3)人们必须联系世界环境去认识和研究人口控制问题。
The problem of population control has to be recognized and approached in a world environmental context.
五、当不便使用被动式时,汉语可采用某些转换式来表达被动意义。如:
1.处置式(即“把字式”或“将字式”),表示施事对受事的处置或支配行为。王力认为,“被动式和处置式的形式虽不同(一是被动句,一是主动句),而其所叙行为的性质却大致相同。譬如一件事,在主事者一方面看来是一种处置,在受事者一方面看来往往就是一种不如意或不企望的事。‘他把你打了一顿’,在‘他’看来是一种处置,在‘你’看来就是一种损害了。因此,多数被动式是可以改为处置式的。被动句若要转成主动句,也是变为处置式较为适宜。”试比较:
树被风刮倒了。The tree was blown down by the wind.
风把树刮倒了。The wind blew down the tree.
她被人杀害了。She was killed.
有人把她杀害了。someone killed her.
敌人的阴谋被揭穿了。The enemy’s plot was exposed.
我们把敌人的阴谋揭穿了。We exposed the enemy’s plot.
英语的被动式译成汉语时,若不便采用“被字式”,常常采用“处置式”:
1)These questions should not be confused.
不要把这些问题混在一起。
2)The mechanical energy can be changed back into electrical energy by a generator.
利用发电机,可以将机械能再变成电能。
3)Whenever work is being done,energy is being converted from one form into another.
凡是做功,都是把能从一种形式转换成另一种形式。
4)Metals are deliberately mixed to produce hundreds of new substances with desirable qualities not otherwise avail able.
故意把各种金属混合在一起,可以产生数百种新物质。这些物质的特性合乎人们的需要,也是一般金属所没有的。
5)Kissinger was alarmed by China’s first atomic blast in October,1964.
一九六四年十月,中国爆炸了第一颗原子弹,这把基辛格吓了一跳。
2.“为……所”式,是较古的被动式,与现代的被动式结合,即为“被……所”,如:
茅屋为秋风所破。
The thatched house was destroyed by the autumn storm.
她被花言巧语所陶醉。
She is intoxicated with sweet words.
3.“是……的”式,即表示状态的静句,通常可以与表示动作的动句互相转换,如:
这些产品是我国制造的。(我国制造这些产品)
These products are made in our country.
风速是用秒米表示的。(用秒米表示风速)
The speed of wind is expressed in metres by second.
4.“……的是”式,一般可以与“是(由)……的”式互相转换,
推荐我的是一位教授。(我是由一位教授推荐的)
I was recommended by a professor.
接见他的是一位秘书。(他是由一位秘书接见的)
He was received by a secretary.
5.“……加以/予以”式,组成倒置的动宾结构,如:
这个问题将在下一章加以讨论。
This question will be discussed in the next chapter.
这必须在适当的时候予以处理。
It must be dealt with at the appropriate time.
除了上述的形式以外,汉语还可以通过各种变通的手段,用与英语不同的句型和词性来表达英语的被动意义,如:
1)They are paid for this.
他们拿钱就是干这个的。
2)The culture of antiquity was rediscovered.
古代文化重见天日。
3)He has been pursued, day by day, and year by year,by a most phenomenal and astonishing luckiness.
一天又一天,一年又一年,他始终吉星高照,令人惊异不己。
4)He was guided in his everyday life by an unshakable conviction that moral values are absolute.
他在日常生活中有一条不可动摇的信念,那就是,道德标准是绝对的。
英语使用被动式,常常是为了表示某种客观、间接和非人称的口气,以迎合某些表达的需要。汉语要表达同样的口气,往往不用被动式,而用上述的无主句、主语省略句、主语泛称句以及其他句式。总之,英语常用被动式,汉语常用主动式。英汉互译时,句式的转换便成了一种常用的技巧。
第七章:静态与动态
(Stative vs.Dynamic)
英语倾向于多用名词,因而叙述呈静态(stative);汉语倾向于多用动词,因而叙述呈动态(dynamic)。R.Quirk等人对静态和动态曾作如下解释:
Broadly speaking, nouns can be characterized naturally as ‘stative’ in that they refer to entities that are regarded as stable.whether these are concrete (physical) like house,table,paper,or abstract (of the mind)like hope,botany,length.At the opposite pole,verbs can be equally naturally characterized as ‘dynamic’:they are fitted (by their capacity to show tense and aspect,for example) to indicate action,activity and temporary or changing conditions.These relations between the open classes can be summarized thus:
STATIVE noun ↔ adjective
DYNAMIC verb adverb
英语的静态倾向,主要表现在以下几方面:
一、名词化(Nominalization)是英语常见的现象。
名词化主要指用名词来表达原来属于动词(或形容词)所表达的概念,如用抽象名词来表达动作、行为、变化、状态、品质、情感等概念。S.Potter在“Changing English”一书中曾指出英语“名词优势于动词”的倾向(preponderance of nouns over verbs)。这种名词优势往往可以使表达比较简洁,造句比较灵活,行文比较自然,也便于表达较为复杂的思想内容。试比较:
The doctor arrived extremely quickly and examined the patient uncommonly carefully; the result was that he recovered very speedily.
The doctor’ s extremely quick arrival and uncommonly careful examination of the patient brought about his very speedy recovery.
医生迅速到达,并非常仔细地检查了病人,因此病人很快就康复了。
Freedom-loving people everywhere condemned them because they violated the agreement reached at Helsinki and abused basic human rights in their own country.The abuse of basic human rights in their own country in violation of the agreement reached at Helsinki earned them the condemnation of freedom-loving people everywhere.
他们违反在赫尔辛基达成的协议,在国内侵犯基本人权。因此受到了各地热爱自由的人们的谴责。
运用名词化表达法(nominal style)可以使叙述较为准确,贴切,但也会使语言抽象、难解。O.Jespersen指出:
It seems possible to express ideas with greater precision and adequacy by means of nouns than by means of the more pictorial verbs.…When we express by means of nouns what is generally expressed by finite verbs,our language becomes not only more abstract, but more abstruse, owing among other things to the fact that in the verbal substantive some of the life-giving elements of the verb (time,mood,person)disappear.While the nominal style may therefore serve the purposes of philosophy,where,however,it now and then does nothing but disguise simple thoughts in the garb of profound wisdom,it does not lend itself so well to the purposes of everyday life.
英美不少语言学者都指出英语有过分使用名词的习惯(noun habit).名词使用多了,与之相随的介词(尤其是of短语)也必然增多,与此同时,富有活力和生气的动词也就相应减少,弱化动词be的各种形式成了hard workers和heavy-duty words,这就使英语的静态倾向更加明显。如;
The effect of the overuse of nouns in writing is the placing of too much strain upon the verbs and the resultant prevention of movement of the thought.
这一句子充满了名词、动名词和介词,其唯一的谓语动词是“is”.这个软弱的动词必须拉动一个满载名词的主语,还必须推动两个满载名词的表语,这就使整个句子缺乏动态感。若将部分名词改为动词,即可分担句子的负荷,化静态为动态:
One who overuses nouns in writing places too much strain upon the verbs and as a result prevents the thought from moving along.
写作时过分使用名词,势必给动词增加太多的负担,因而阻碍思路畅通。
过分使用名词会使文句冗长(wordy)、含糊(vague),缺乏活力(1ifeless),许多英语文体学家都反对滥用名词化表达法,主张通过多用生动活泼的动词来简化句子结构。试比较:
Integrated into the circulation of national life much more completely than any other modern literature,American belles—lettres also give a much more faithful and adequate picture of the entire civilization to which they belong than literature abroad, whose very compliance with一or willful opposition to一traditions that have long lost their anchorage in the depths of their respective national civilizations, renders them unable to keep abreast of the rejuvenated spirit of their epoch.
这一句子使用了多个抽象名词,因而显得冗长、死板,若用动词代替这些名词,即可使句子轻松、活泼:
American belles—lettres circulate in the national life much more than other modern literatures do; they picture the entire civilization to which they belong more faithfully and adequately.The spirit of the times has become young again,and literatures abroad cannot keep abreast with it because of certain traditions they comply with or willfully oppose.These traditions were once anchored in the depths of their national civilizations.but have 1ost that anchor— age long ago.
二、用名词表示施事者(Agentive noun),以代替动词。
英语除了用抽象名词表示行为和动作(如realize—realization,complete—completion)等概念外,还常用含有行为和动作意义的普通名词代替动词。大量由动词派生(如以-er或-or结尾)的名词既表示施事者,又保留原来动词的意义。这类名词常常与前置形容词构成静态结构:
a hard worker—someone who works hard工作勤奋的人
a slow walker—someone who walks slowly走路很慢的人
a good thief—someone who thieves well很会偷窃的人
a bad sailor—someone who often gets seasick会晕船的人
汉语由动词加后缀构成的名词(如读者、教师、打字员、观察家、修理工)用来指人,不再表示行为或动作,因而英语这类名词往往要转换为汉语动词:
1)He is a good eater and a good sleeper.(C.Eckersley)
他能吃能睡。
2)He is a young and rapid writer. (S.Coleridge)
他是个笔头快的年青人。
3)He was a nonsmoker and a teetotaler.(E.Snow)
他既不抽烟,也不喝酒。
4)You must be a very bad learner,or else you must be going to a very bad teacher. (C.Eckersley)
你一定很不善于学习,要不然就是教你的人很不会教。
5)She is the best hater I’ve ever known.How she got to hate me so much!
我所认识的人当中,她最会记仇。她怎么变得这么恨我呢?
6)I used to be a bit of a fancier myself.
过去我也常常有点喜欢胡思乱想。
7)That boy is a master complicator.
那男孩可真会捣乱。
8)You’re all clock-watchers today!
你们今天老是看着钟表等待下班啊I
9)since he lost his job,he’s been a loner.
他失业以后,就很不合群了。
1o)The computer is a far more careful and industrious inspector than human beings.
计算机比人检查得更细心、更勤快。
11)Every country is the best judge of what is required to safeguard its national security.
每个国家需要什么来保卫国家安全,只有它自己才能作出最好的判断。
12)He was a clever man;a pleasant companion; a careless student;with a great propensity for running into debt,and a partiality for the tavern.(‘‘Vanity Fair”)
他是个聪明人,很好相处,可是学习不肯用功; 他老是东挪西借, 又喜欢上酒店喝酒。
这类名词有时并不指人,而是用来代替动词,如:
1)The real shocker was that things dragged on well beyond the two weeks I had anticipated.
最令人吃惊的是,事情拖了很久,大大超过我原来设想的两周。
2)Litmus paper can be used as an indicator of the presence or not of acid in a solution.
石蕊试纸可用于指示溶液中是否含有酸。
三、用名词代替形容词,构成标题式短语(Headline phrase)。
报刊标题为了节约版面,尽量略去虚词和其他次要的词,把具有刺激性的词语(stimulating words)挤压在一起,因而名词连用便成了一种“free-and-easy habit”。如:
Sino-American Trade Review Talks Start
中美贸易回顾会谈开始
January Crude Oil Output Beats Target
一月份原油产量超过指标
5oo-Metre-Long Flood Prevention Dyke Built
五百米长的防洪坝建成
这种名词连用的短语结构简化,表达方便,词数少而信息量大,其使用范围已大大超出了报刊标题,在现代英语里几乎俯拾即是。B.Foster指出,“The whole tendency of the modern language is towards doing away with adjectives, or at least,using nouns as epithets” 如:
gold reserve黄金储备
generation gap两代人之间的隔阂
figure control problem保持优美身材的问题
job opportunity discrimination(因种族或性别而异的)就业机会歧视
名词连用或复合名词在科技英语里尤其常见:
space shuttle flight test program航天飞机试飞计划
computer programming teaching device manual计算机程序编制教学方法手册
satellite communications ground station equipment repairer卫星通信地面站设备修理人员
名词连用加强了英语的名词优势,也反映了现代英语追求简洁的总趋势,但不少语言学者反对过分堆彻名词(noun pileups),认为这会使语言失去活力,缺乏动态感,有时还会造成语意含混,甚至产生歧义。E.Gowers指出:“The constant use of headline phrases is usually a sign either of unclear thinking or of unwillingness to say things as briskly and simply as possible.A headline phrase consisting of more than two words should be treated with suspicion,and things tend to get even more awkward if the phrase includes an adjective as well as a number of nouns}it is not always obvious on first reading which noun the adjective qualifies,and tiresome problems of hyphenation sometimes arise.” 例如:
- British history teachers
(1) teachers of British history教英国历史的教师
(2) British teachers of history教历史的英国教师
- A small car factory
(1) a factory of small cars制造小汽车的工厂
(2) a small factory of cars制造轿车的小工厂
- an old man’s bicycle
(1) an old + (man’s bicycle) 一辆旧的男式自行车
(2) (an old man) +bicycle) 一个老人的自行车
- Excessive headline phrase condemnation is, of course, a possibility.
(= It is possible, of course, to go too far in condemning headline phrases.)
当然,过分指责使用标题式短语是可能的。
(=It is possible,of course,to condemn the overuse of headline phrases.)
当然,指责过分使用标题式短语是可能的。
名词连用或用名词代替形容词(noun adjectives)在现代英语里是一种盛行的文风。H.W.Fowler也指出,“These tricks, when allowed to affect literary style,destroy both precision and elegance;sentences stumble along painfully and obscurely in synthetic lumps instead of running easily and lucidly with analytical grace.The corruption has gone far,affecting especially political speeches,official writing,and commercialese.” 例如:
1)Major vehicle expansion projects must depend on steel availability.
(= Major projects for expanding the production of vehicles must depend on how much steel is available.)
2)Where retirement dissatisfaction existed advance activity programming had been insignificant.
(=The people who were unhappy after retirement were those who had taken little trouble to plan their activities beforehand.)
3)This compulsion is much regretted,but a large vehicle fleet operator restriction in mileage has now been made imperative in meeting the demand for petrol economy.
(=We much regret having to do this,but we have been obliged to restrict greatly the operation of our large fleet of vehicles [or to restrict the operation of our fleet of large vehicles?]to meet the demand for economy in petro1.)
四、名词优势造成介词优势。
介词前置于名词或名词性词语,由于英语多用名词,必然也要多用介词,因而产生了介词优势。随着英语大量废弃名词和形容词的形态变化,介词便取而代之,起了某些形态变化的作用。介词优势与名词优势结合,使英语的静态倾向更为显著。
英语介词十分常见,有的学者把英语称为“介词的语言”,例如以下一句,可谓介词充斥(prepositionitis):
Adequate clearance between the rear face of the last stack in the load and inside surface of the rear doors was provided to enable the refrigerated air flowing from the front to he rear of the trailer to enter the longitudinal air channels through the load which opened on the rear of the load at this point.
英语常常用介词短语取代动词短语,即以“静”代“动”,如:
1)He is at his books.(He is reading books)
他在读书。
2)He has someone behind him.(Someone supports him)
有人给他撑腰。
3)The machine is in operation.(The machine is working)
机器正在运行。
4)Is this train for Chicago?(Is this train going to Chicago?)
这趟火车是开往芝加哥的吗?
5)Shall we go to the theater?(Shall we go to see a play in the theater?)
咱们到剧场看戏,好吗?
6)With these words she went away (After saying these,she went away)
说完这些话,她便走开了。
7)They immediately set out in pursuit of the enemy. (They immediately set out to pursue the enemy)
他们立刻出动去追击敌人。
介词与名词结合,组成介词短语。成串的介词短语又常常与弱化动词(如be,seem,1ook,become等)和“沉闷的名词”(ponderous nouns)连用:
In view of the fact that Mr. Jones is not very well, I am taking the opportunity of replying on his behalf.
Our company’s well—defined position is that it stands ready at all times to cooperate with your firm whenever it is called upon to do so. The majority of stockholders are in complete sympathy with your company’s goals and objectives in regard to the construction of a new plant. It may be within your recollection that prior to 1963,this company tendered your company a loan consisting of a large amount of money in order to put it in a solvent and strong financial position.The occasion was the time of your company’s most ambitious retooling operation,when it was hardly in a position to utilize existing resources.Despite the fact that the company had many obstacles to overcome,it did not wait until such time as the situation would improve.The loan was repaid in short order.It is because of this fact that our company continually displays the utmost confidence in the operations of your company.
这封兜着圈子说话的(roundabout)回信,如果多用动词,少用介词短语,则可化“静”为“动”:
I am replying for Mr.Jones,who is ill.
Our company is always ready to co-operate.Most of our stockholders sympathize with your aim to build a new plant.You will recall that before 1963,we loaned you large sums of money to put you in a strong financial position.It was during the ambitious retooling operation’ when you couldn’t use existing funds.Although you had many difficulties,you didn’t wait until the situation improved.You repaid the loan.Our company has faith in your operations.
“名词+介词”的优势常见于英语里大量的弱式短语。这类短语往往削弱或淡化(dilute)原来所要表达的动词、形容词和其他词语的意义,使叙述曲折迂回(circumlocution),因而增强了静态感,例如:
give rise to(arouse)
make contact with(meet)
arrive at a decision(decide)
bring to a conclusion(finish)
undertake a study of(study)
take into consideration(consider)
afford an opportunity to(allow)
carry out experiments(experiment)
conduct an investigation into(investigate)
of a kindly nature(kind)
of an unusual character(unusual)
beyond the shadow of a doubt(certain)
due to the fact that(because)
on two separate occasions(twice)
in view of the foregoing circumstances(therefore)
英语文体学家认为滥用这种弱化表达法(debilitated style);一种不良的文风。这类短语往往使表达显得罗嗦(wordy)、累赘(verbose)、缺乏生气(1ifeless),因而不宜提倡。H.W.Fowler 指出,“Strings of nouns depending on one another and the use m compound prepositions are the most conspicuous symptoms m the periphrastic malady,and writers should be on the watch for these in their own composition”.许多学者主张多用平易(plain)、活泼(1ively)、具体(concrete)和直接了当的(direct)词,以减少英语的静态倾向。
五、动词的弱化与虚化。
英语里最常用的动词正是动作意味最弱的动词——to be,其各种形式(包括must be,may be,should have been等)都缺乏动态感。由“it”或“there”与be构成的句式,其静态意味更加明显,试比较:
There was a tropical storm off the east coast of Florida.
佛罗里达东海岸有一场热带风暴。
A tropical storm lashed the east coast of Florida.
一场热带风暴袭击了佛罗里达东海岸。
It was the finding of the committee that there had been bribed paid by company managers to foreign officials.
The committee found that company managers had bribed foreign officials.
委员会发现公司经理向外国官员行贿。
除了be之外,have,become,grow,feel,go,come,get,do等也是英语常用的弱式动词(verbs of feeble phenomenality)。
英语还常常把动词转化或派生成名词,置于虚化动词(如 have,make,take,do等)之后作其宾语,如have a 1ook,take a walk,make attempts,pay visits,do some damages,put up a proposal等。这类动词短语往往显得虚弱而平淡无味(colorless)。试比较:
After he had a quarrel with his boss, Jack quit.
After he quarreled with his boss, Jack quit.
杰克与老板争吵之后便辞职了。
A distinction must be made between “economic” and “economical”.
You must distinguish between “economic” and “economical”
必须把“economic”和“economical”加以区别。
此外,用动名词作虚化动词do的宾语,如do shopping,do some washing等,也很常见:
The combine does the harvesting of the grain.
The combine harvests the grain.
联合收割机收割谷物。
六、用形容词或副词表达动词的意义。
英语常用动词的同源形容词与弱化动词相结合的方式表达动词的意义,如:
1)I am doubtful whether he is still alive.(doubt,live)
我怀疑他是否还活着。
2)The teacher thanked her pupils because they are very cooperative.(cooperate well)
学生合作得很好,老师向学生表示感谢。
3)The doctor felt sympathetic with his patients.(sympathize)
医生同情他的病人。
不少动词可以用其同源形容词来表达,如:support-supportive,thank-thankful,create-creative,sleep-asleep等。
英语里表示心理或生理感觉的形容词以及其他形容词也常常与弱式动词构成系表结构,表达相当于动词的意义,如:
1)A postman is not afraid of dogs.
邮递员不怕狗。
2)He was unaware of my presence.
他当时不知道我在场。
3) John seems content just to sit in front of the television all night.
约翰整夜坐在电视机前似乎就满足了。
英语还常用副词来表达动词的意义,如:
1)I’m afraid Mr.Brown is out,but he’ll be in soon.
恐怕布朗先生出去了,但是他很快会回来的。
2)He’ll be home in half an hour.
他将在半小时内到家。
3)The newspaper was down at six yesterday.
昨天报纸六点钟付印。
4)Down with the old and up with the new.
破旧立新。
总之,英语常常通过动词的派生、转化、弱化和虚化等手段,采用非动词的形式(如名词、介词、形容词、副词等)表达动词的意义,因而表达呈静态。与此相比,汉语则倾向于多用动词,其动态倾向主要表现在以下几方面:
一、动词连用是汉语常见的现象。
汉语连动式和兼语式句子都包含着两个或两个以上的动词。连动式、兼语式、把字式和被字式这四个句式还常常互相包孕套用,构成各式各样的多动词谓语句。如以下句子,都是汉语常用的句式:
1)他想办法摆脱了困境。(=他想办法+他摆脱了困境,连动式)
He thought his way out of the dilemma.
2)我们请她唱歌。(=我们请她+她唱歌,兼语式)
We asked her to sing.
3)你去教室把他叫回来。(=你去教室+你把他叫回来,连动式与把字式套叠)
Go to the classroom and call him back.
4)我把她请来打字。(=我把她请来+她打字,把字式与兼语式套叠)
I invited her here to do some typing.
5)我被老师叫到办公室去作检讨。(=我被老师叫+我到办公室去+我作检讨,被字式与连动式套叠)
I was called to the office by the teacher to make a self-criticism.
6)我去叫他们派一个会计到这儿来帮助你算账吧。(=我去叫他们+ 他们派一个会计+一个会计到这儿来帮助你算账,兼语式与连动式套叠)
Let me go and ask them to send an accountant here to help you with your accounts.
二、动词(词组)可以充当汉语句子的各种成分。
汉语动词及动词词组,包括连动式词组、兼语式词组,无需改变形式就可以充当句子的各种成分。如此一来,汉语句子就显得到处都有动词了:
1)实现理想境界要靠辛勤劳动。(动词词组作主语、宾语)
To translate ideals into reality needs hard work.
2)解决问题的最好方法是进行调查研究 (动词词组作定语、表语)
The best way to solve the problem is to conduct investigations.
3)他不停地来回走着,激动得说不出话来。(动词词组作状语、补语)
He kept on walking back and forth,being too excited to say a single word.
4)革命不是请客吃饭。(兼语式词组作表语)
Revolution is not a dinner party.
5)他们喜欢乘火车旅行。(连动式词组作宾语)
They enjoy traveling by train.
汉语动词可以充当助动词,置于主要动词的前后,形成动词连用。前置助动词(即能愿动词)主要有:要、会、能、肯、想、敢、愿意、能够、可能、应该等;后置助动词(即趋向动词)主要有:来、去、起来、下去、出来、过去等。“来”或‘‘去”可以前置,也可以后置,还可以前后各用一个:
他来(去)借书。/ 他借书来(去)了。/ 他来(去)借书来(去)了。
He’s come (gone) to borrow books.
“来”或“去”可以与主要动词隔开,也可以用来连接两个动词(词组):
我拿了一本词典来。(=我拿来了一本词典)
I’ve brought a dictionary.
你们要想一个办法来(去)帮助我(他).
You should think a way out to help me (him).
汉语的动词还可以充当介词。严格说来,汉语的介词大多是由动词演变来的,因而仍然保留着动词的某些特征,如:
用词典(动词。to use a dictionary)
用英语写(介词,to write in English)
他在教室。(动词,He is in the classroom)
他在教室学习。(介词,He is studying in the classroom)
人们来来往往。(动词,People are corning and going)
他往东走去。(介词,He went in an eastward direction)
葵花朵朵向太阳。(动词,sunflowers turn towards the sun)
向自然开战。(介词,to wage a battle against nature)
其他例子如:朝南开、替她说、比他好、照例办,乘车走、给他讲、把头一扭、拿他开玩笑、从全局出发、离春节只有十天,等等。汉语没有形态变化,动词与介词常常难以区分,因而也常常互相替用。汉语动词可以用来代替介词,这就大大加强了汉语的动态倾向。
三、汉语动词常常重复或重叠。
汉语动词的重复或重叠,以及与此相关的句式排比或对偶,可以明显地加强汉语动态感的表现力。英语动词一般不能重叠,也较少重复,甚至常常在需要重复的地方省略。相比之下,汉语动词出现的频率就更高了:
1)来的来,去的去。 !
Some come here and others go away.
2)说是的说是,说非的说非,莫衷一是。
Some say “yes”, and others “no”; I don’t know whom to follow.
3)说说笑笑,跑跑跳跳,孩子们过得十分愉快。
Talking and laughing,running and jumping,the children had a good time.
4)要吃有吃,要穿有穿。
You will have enough to eat and sufficient to put on.
5)说是说了,没有结果,做是做了,没有成功。
I have made proposals,but in vain;I have made attempts.but without Success.
6)念死书念出来的学问是没有多大用处的。
Learning by rote will be unprofitable.
7)学问,学问,要学要问; 边学边问,才有学问。
Acquisition of knowledge entails learning and seeking for explanation.
8)我等着要上路,越等越不耐烦,哪里是等一会儿,一等就是老半天。
I waited with growing impatience to get on my way,not for one minute but for quite a considerable time.
9)我们谈到自己,谈到前途,谈到旅程。谈到天气,谈到彼此的情况——谈到一切,只是不谈我们的男女主人。
We talked of ourselves,of our prospects,of the journey,of the weather。of each other—of everything but our host and hostess.
叠字构词是汉人所喜闻乐见的表达方法。汉语动词常常以各种格式加以重复或重叠,构成丰富多彩、生动活泼的动词结构,如:
AA式:谈谈 听听 想想 瞧瞧 歇歇 试试 摸摸
A—A式:谈一谈 吃一吃 走一走 看一看 避一避
A了A式:谈了谈 想了想 跺了跺 摇了摇 笑了笑
A了一A: 想了一想 翻了一翻 摇了一摇 算了一算 试了一试
A着A着(A了A了):看着看着 走着走着 老了老了 完了完了
AABB式:说说笑笑 来来往往 吃吃喝喝 摇摇晃晃 吵吵闹闹
ABAB式:讨论讨论 学习学习 休息休息 热闹热闹 走动走动
ABAC式:无依无靠 有始有终 任劳任怨 没完没了 敢作敢为
汉语还有大量对偶复意的动词词组,如:
惊天动地 发号施令 离乡背井 土崩瓦解 唉声叹气 干变万化 想方设法
添砖加瓦 粗制滥造 提心吊胆 突飞猛进 咬牙切齿
对立并联的动词词组:
求同存异 深入浅出 死去活来 迎新弃旧 前仆后继 去伪存真
现代汉语还常常把两个动词合并为一,构成“双重动词”,如:
指控(=指责+控诉) 搜捕(=搜查+逮捕) 封存(=封闭+保存)
辨析(=辨别+分析) 抗击(=抵抗+反击) 宣讲(=宣传+讲解)
汉语动词的重复、重叠、合成和合并无疑会使汉语的动态意味更浓。
英语动词的使用受到形态变化规则的严格限制。一个句子结构通常只用一个谓语动词,大量原来应该由动词表达的概念,除了用非谓语动词来表达外,必须借助于动词以外的词类,其中主要是名词和介词。名词可以由动词派生或转化而来,由于比较不受形态变化规则的约束,因而使用起来灵活、方便,这就导致了名词的广泛使用。介词与名词密切相关,因而介词也得以广泛使用。名词与介词的优势不仅降低了动词出现的频率,而且削弱了动词所表达的意义,产生了动词的弱化与虚化。“名词优势于动词”使英语的表达呈现静态倾向。
与此相比,汉语动词没有形态变化的约束,使用起来十分自由、简便。汉语没有谓语动词与非谓语动词的形式之分,原形动词可以充当句子的各种成分,可以在句中多次连用,甚至重复、重叠。合成并用。为数不多的介词又几乎都是用动词来代替的。因此,汉语除了部分句子没有动词(即名词谓语句如“今天劳动节”和形容词谓语句如“天气很好”)以外,大量的句子都不止使用一个动词。动词优势必然使汉语的表达呈现动态倾向。
由于以上的不同特点,英汉互译的过程往往是静态与动态互相转换的过程。适当地运用这一原理,常常可以使译文比较符合表达习惯,如:
1.静态转换为动态:
1)Ford’s first pledge was, “Mr. President, you have my support and my loyalty.”
福特一开始就保证说;“总统先生,我支持您,并效忠于您。”
2)It came not as a Nixon revelation,but rather as a confirmation of the “New York Times” story.
这不能算是尼克松透露了什么新东西,而是证实了“纽约时报”的报道。
3)Harvard,despite its own estimate of itself,was ultimately an academic haven where an error of interpretation could result only in loss of face, not in extinction.(“Kissinger”)
哈佛大学,不管它如何自命高明,终究还是个学府胜地,在那里把问题看错了,无非丢脸而已,总不至于完蛋。
4)only the early himself kept up a sly occasional acquaintance with her,when out of the jurisdiction of his ladies.(“Vanity Fair”)
只有伯爵是例外,碰上妻子女儿管不着他的当儿,就偷偷摸摸地来找她。
5)A spirit prevailed then which was quintessentially American:that problems are a challenge, not an alibi; that men are measured not only by their success but also by their striving,that it is better to aim grandly than to wallow in mediocre comfort.(“Kissinger)
那时的风气还是符合地地道道的美国精神的:有问题,只能上,不能躲, 衡量一个人,不但看他的成败,也看他的努力程度,宁愿好大喜功,也不甘庸闲遣日。
2.动态转换为静态:
1)火箭已经用来探索宇宙。
Rockets have found application for the exploration of the universe.
2)一切爱好和平的人民都要求全面禁止核武器,彻底销毁核武器。
All peace-loving people demand the complete prohibition and thorough destruction of nuclear weapons.
3)要不是我能干重活,早就给辞退了。
It was only my capacity for hard work that saved me from early dismissal.
4)屋顶需要加以特别考虑,以确保经受日晒雨淋。
Roofs require special consideration to ensure adequate durability in relation to the exposure to the sun and rain.
5)他深信,只有对历史加以透彻研究,才能真正学到知识。
He is in the full conviction that real knowledge is the end product of a thorough study of the history.
6)侵略有许多形式:单方面废除条约与国际义务,干涉别国内政,对较弱邻国实施威胁,强迫实行不平等关系,赤裸裸武装进攻别国领土和肢解别国,征服殖民地民族,否认自决权和基本人权。
Aggression took many forms: the unilateral denunciation of treaties and international commitments, interference in the internal affairs of other states, the use of threats against weaker neighbors, the imposition of unequal relationships, outright armed attack against the territories of other states and their dismemberment,the subjugation of colonial peoples and the denial of the right self-determination and fundamental human rights.
第八章:抽象与具体
(Abstract vs.Concrete)
英语的名词化往往导致表达的抽象化。G.M.Young曾指出,“an excessive reliance on the noun at the expense of the verb will,in the end,detach the mind of the writer from the realities of here and now, from when and how and in what mood the thing was done.and insensibly induce a habit of abstraction, generalization and vagueness.” 英语的抽象表达法(method of abstract diction)主要见于大量使用抽象名词。这类名词涵义概括,指称笼统,覆盖面广,往往有一种“虚”、“泛”、“暗”、“曲”、“隐”的“魅力”,因而便于用来表达复杂的思想和微妙的情绪。如:
1)The signs of the times point to the necessity of the modification of the system of administration.(“Times”)( =It is becoming clear that the administrative system must be, modified)
管理体制需要改革,这已越来越清楚了。
2)No year passes now without evidence of the truth of the statement that the work of government is becoming increasingly difficult.(“Spectator”)(=Every year shows again how true it is that…)
行政管理工作已变得越来越困难了,每年都证明确实如此。
3)There seems to have been an absence of attempt at conciliation between rival sects.(“Daily Telegraph”)( =The sects seem never even to have tried mutual conciliation)
对立的派别似乎从来就没有试图去谋求和解。
抽象表达法在英语里使用得相当普遍,尤其常用于社会科学论著、官方文章、报刊评论、法律文书、商业信件等文体。这种表达法得以流行,还有以下几个主要原因:
一、抽象思维被认为是一种高级思维(superior mind),是文明人的一种象征(mark of civilized man).随着科学技术的发达和文明社会的进步,原有的感性表达方式已不足以表达复杂的理性概念,因而需要借助于抽象、概括的方法。这正如H.Jacobi所说的:‘‘abstract methods of diction were more and more needed as the sphere of ideas to be expressed became narrower and narrower.” 此外,许多作者为了显耀其思想深奥而故弄玄虚、追随时尚,也嗜好抽象表达法。例如:
1)The absence of intelligence is an indication of satisfactory developments.(=No news is good news)
没有消息即表明有令人满意的进展。
2)Was this the realization of an anticipated liability?(=Did you expect you would have to do this?)
你有没有预料到你必需做这件事?
3)The actual date of the completion of the purchase should coincide with the availability of the new facilities.(=The purchase should not be completed until the new facilities are available)
必须等到有了这些新设备,才能购买这批货。
4)A high degree of carelessness, pre-operative and post-operative, on the part of some of the hospital staff,took place.(=Some of the hospital staff were very careless both before and after the operation)
医院某些医护人员在手术前后都非常粗心。
5)The lack of figures may prove to be an obstacle to the efficiency of the whole of the proposed statistical content of the exercise.(=Lack of figures may make it difficult to produce accurate statistics)
缺乏数据会使准确的统计变得很困难。
二、抽象词语意义模糊,便于掩饰作者含混(cloudy)或真实的思想,以迎合其某种表达的需要,因而也得以流行。E.Gowers指出,“Unfortunately the very vagueness of abstract words is one of the reasons for their popularity.To express one’s thoughts accurately is hard work,and to be precise is sometimes dangerous.We are tempted to prefer the safer obscurity of the abstract.It is the greatest vice of present-day writing.” 这种不良的文风常常表现在过分使用涵义抽象、内容虚泛、语气庄严的大字眼(pompous words),有时简直到了装腔作势、令人难以捉摸的地步:
Whereas the micro-economic neo-classical theory of distribution was based on a postulate of rationality suited to their static analysis and institutional assumptions,we are no longer justified in accepting this basis and are set the problem of discovering the Value premises suited to the expectational analysis and the institutional nature of modern business.The neo-classical postulate of rationality and the concept of the entrepreneur as the profit maximizing individual,should,I think,be replaced by a sociological analysis of the goals of the firm in relation to its nature as an organization within the socio-political system.
这段文字是英国人写的,说的是有关商业人士如何作出决策;下段文字则出自美国人之笔,讲的是有关检验为军用飞行器或宇宙飞船特制的食品:
Strangeness of samples has been shown to lead to relative rejection of products in the comparative absence of clues to a frame of reference within which judgment may take place.Variation in clues selected by judges as a basis for evaluation lead to greater inter-judge disagreement.Addition of a functional(utilitarian)basis for judgment tends to reduce relative importance of product physical characteristics as a basis for judgment.In the absence of any judgmental frame of reference reduction in the number of product physical attributes apparent to the judge appears to reduce operation of bases for rejection and increase homogeneity of judgment between subjects;inter-sample discrimination is also reduced.
滥用抽象词语在公文里已是司空见惯。加拿大国防部根据某些常用虚泛词语的搭配习惯,发明了一个“公式化套语生成表”,称之为“Buss—phrase Generator”:
Column 1 Column 2 Column 3
0. integrated 0. management 0. options
1. overall 1. organizational 1. flexibility
2. systematized 2. monitored 2. capabilities
3. parallel 3. reciprocal 3. mobility
4. functional 4. digital 4. programming
5. responsive 5. logistical 5. concept
6. optional 6. transitional 6.time-phase
7. synchronized 7. incremental 7.projection
8. compatible 8. third-generation 8. hardware
9. balanced 9. policy 9. contingency
此表的用法很简单:只要从每栏内任取一词,按其顺序便可组成一个公式化的套语,如405,即functional management concept.这些套语,外行人听起来以为很重要,但实际上并无多大意义。作者用令人困惑的抽象词语(puzzling abstraction)把所要表达的意思隐蔽起来,读者只能“透过朦胧的玻璃”看出其大概的轮廓。这种模糊的“行话”其实是虚泛的空话,但却在政府、商业或技术等部门里甚为盛行,并成了时髦的词语(vogue terms)。
三、英语有丰富的词义虚化手段,这就大大方便了抽象表达法的使用。这些手段主要有:
1.用虚化词缀构词。前缀和后缀都可以使词义虚化,其中以后缀数量最多、分布最广。如:
前缀: pan-泛:panorama,inter-相互:interplay,micro-微:micro-cosm,pro-先:prodrome其他如:trans-跨,crypt-隐性,circum-绕,contra-相反,intra-内,multi-多,retro-后,ultra-超
后缀:
一ness表示性质、状态、程度:oneness,disinterestedness,thoughtfulness,up—to—dateness,carelessness
一tion表示动作、状态、结果:agitation,occupation,realization,decoration,examination,internationalization
---ity表示性质、状态、程度:calamity,purity,alkalinity, modernity,liberality,formality,humanity,gravity
—ism表示主义、学说、信仰、行为、行动、状态、特征、特性、病态: Marxism,atomism,criticism,vandalism,barbarism, colloquialism,alcoholism,fatalism
—sion表示行为、状态、性质、结果:confusion,division,conversion,precision,decision,declension,conclusion
—ence表示动作、性质、状态:emergence,reference,despondence,resilience,dependence,existence
—ment表示行为的结果、手段、工具、过程、状态、程度:entanglement,increment,entertainment,encampment, astonishment,advertisement,development
—ance表示性质、状况、行动、过程、总量、程度;perseverance, vigilance,attendance,conductance,continuance
—ship表示情况、状态、性质、身份、职业、技巧、技能;hardship, friendship,apprenticeship,marksmanship
—hood表示身份、资格、性质、状态;childhood,priesthood,falsehood,likelihood,manhood,bachelorhood
—ing表示动作或动作的过程、结果、产物、对象、与某一事物有关的动作、与某一动作或概念有关的事物等:swimming,engraving,building,accounting,sewing,coloring,scaffolding, offing, banking, bearing
英语大量的抽象名词源于拉丁语(Latinate abstracts).o. Jespersen指出,“Latin loan-words are extremely numerous and important in the English language.All educated people are well acquainted with those innumerable scientific,technical,and other Latin words which have been adopted during the last five centuries and which have stamped the English vocabulary in so peculiar a way”.拉丁词(如以一tion,一ty,一ment,一ence等结尾的名词)音节多,词义泛,在英语里到处可见。以下两例引自美国的一家教育杂志,其抽象名词可谓泛滥成灾(abstractitis):
1)Merely to enumerate these five outstanding characteristics of an urban community,namely,chaotic stimulation,mechanization,impersonalization,commercialization,and complexity of organization,suggests many implications for the city education.
2)For most Americans,irrespective of party affiliation and predisposition,isolationism is defunct and participation and cooperation commonsensed and essential, in international relations.
2、用介词表达比较虚泛的意义。介词本来就是虚词,在英语里十分活跃。介词可以构成各式各样的短语或成语,其意义有时虚泛得难以捉摸,如:
1)be in at:
If any mischief was going forward, Peter was sure to be in at it.
只要有什么恶作剧,总免不了有彼得在内。
2)be in for:
I understand he’s in for a job in the company.
我知道他在申请公司的一个职位。
3)be in for it:
When your mother sees your torn trousers, you’ll be in for it.
要是你妈妈看到你的裤子撕破了,你准得吃苦头。
4)in on:
If there’s any profit to be got out of the deal, I’m going to be on it.
如果这次买卖可以赚到钱,我打算凑一份。
5)have it in for somebody
Bob has it in for George because George told the teacher that Bob cheated in the exam.
因为乔治向老师报告鲍勃考试作弊,鲍勃就对乔治怀恨在心。
一般说来,英语词义内涵比较广泛,词的用法比较灵活,一词多义、一词多用的现象非常普遍,这也有助于表达比较概括、笼统的意义。如service一词,可以作服务、上菜、服务机构、部门人员、军种、设施、维修、发球、送达、仪式等多种解释; power一词,可以作能力、体力、动力、权力、势力、电力、强国、有权力的人、有影响的机构等多种解释。
总之,英语有过分使用抽象表达法的倾向。不少文体学家提倡具体与抽象相结合的选词法,即“a mixture of long abstract Latin words with short concrete Anglo-Saxon words”,也就是Aristotle早在2300年前就主张的“mixed diction”:
The aim of style is to be clear but distinguished.For clarity,we need common,current words,but,used alone,these are commonplace,and as ephemeral as everyday talk. For distinction.we need words not heard every minute,unusual words,large words,foreign words,metaphors;but,used alone,these become bogs,vapors,or at worst,gibberish.What we need is a diction that weds the popular with the dignified,the clear current with the sedgy margins of1anguage and thought.
与英语相比,汉语用词倾向于具体,常常以实的形式表达虚的概念,以具体的形象表达抽象的内容。这主要是因为汉语缺乏象英语那样的词缀虚化手段。汉语没有形态变化,形式相同的词,可以是名词,也可以是动词,还可以是形容词或其他词。名词从形式上很难辨别出“具体”或“抽象”。王力曾经指出:
我们所谓名词,和英语所谓noun,范围广狭稍有不同。我们的名词,就普通说,除了哲学上的名词之外,只能指称具体的东西。而且可以说是五官所能感触的。英文里从形容词形成的抽象名词,如kindness, wisdom,humility,youth,从动词形成的抽象名词,如invitation, movement,choice,assistance,arrival,discovery等,中国字典里可以说是没有一个词和它们相当的。在中国词的形式上,咱们辨别不出抽象名词的特征;它们是和形容词或动词完全同形的。我们在上文声明过,我们不赞成从职务上分别词类,因此我们就不能从“我喜欢他的聪明”一类的句子里,去证明“聪明”是一个抽象名词,也不能从“他费了长时间的选择”一类的句子里,去证明“选择”是一个抽象名词。我们如果从概念上去辨别,中国语里的“聪明”断然是一个形容词,因为它表示一种德性;“选择”断然是一个动词,因为它表示一种行为。……
“政府”,“议会”,“团体”,“政治”,“经济”一类的名词,它们所指称的东西是五官所不能感触的,然而大家都该承认,它们所指称的东西并不因此减少其具体性。它们实际上包含着许多极端具体的东西,咱们不能否认它们也是名词。
剩下来,只有哲学上的名词如“道” “德” “品” “性”等,才是真正抽象的。如果说中国有抽象名词的话,就只有这极少数的几个了。
现代汉语的一些抽象词尾(如“性”、“化”、“度”、“品”、“主义”等)大多来自外语。例如,“性”译自英语的-ty,-ness,-ce等(necessity必要性、correctness正确性、dependence依赖性),“化”译自英语的-ization,-tion等(modernization现代化,abstraction抽象化),“度”略等于英语的-th,-ty(1ength长度,intensity强度),“主义”译自英语的-ism,-ness等(patriotism爱国主义,slavishness奴隶主义),“品”则相当于英语的某些含义较广的名词,如commodity商品,narcotics毒品,daily necessities日用品。现代汉语虽然可以从外文中引进这类抽象的记号,但其应用的范围仍然相当有限,如Americanism就不能译为“美国主义”,而应译为具体的词,如美国用语、美国发音、美国腔、美国习俗、美国方式、对美国的信仰或效忠等;realization也不能译为“实现化”,而应译为具体的动词或名词,如“实现”、“认识”、“认清”、“了解”、“体会”、“领悟”、“变卖”、“换取”等。
汉语的抽象名词虽然没有英语那么多,但自古以来,表达抽象意义的词语仍不乏其例,如旧时流行的蒙学课本《三字经》,就有不少抽象名词:“性相近,习相远。’’“教五子,名俱扬。” “养不教,父之过。” “教不严,师之惰。” “人不学,不知义。” “曰仁义,礼智信,此五常,不容紊。” “曰喜怒,曰哀惧,爱恶欲,七情具。”其中的抽象名词,都不加虚化词缀。
由于汉语缺乏象英语那样的虚化手段,因而常常用比较具体的方式来表达抽象的意义。Rudolf Flesch在“The Art of Plain Talk”一书中对汉语用词具体(concrete)、表达清晰(clear)、语言形象(picturesque)大加赞扬,并以此来批评英语那种措辞抽象 (abstract)、含义晦涩(obscure)、词句冗长(1ong-winded)的不良文风。他曾作了如下生动的比较:
Chinese does more to you than just simplify your constructions.It simplifies your ideas.In other languages,the affixes are a splendid means of getting away from reality into vague generalities and abstractions.For instance,in English you have the simple word sign,meaning ‘‘a mark.”,Now you add an affix to that word and you get signify,“to make a mark.”Next you add another affix,and you arrive at significant,“making a mark.” Now you add a prefix for a change,and,you have insignificant,‘‘making no mark.” Finally you add another suffix,and you come out with insignificance. ‘‘the making of no mark.” What did you do? You took a simple noun,and made it successively into a verb,an adjective,another adjective,and again a n6un. You have added no meaning but just four empty syllables.Now you can be serious and philosophic and talk about the insignificance of man.A Chinese would say something about Man no mark.So,while you give in to the temptations of English affixes and fill your talk with masses of empty syllables and words,he keeps his feet on the ground and says everything in the most concrete,specific words.He has to; there are no other words in Chinese.
If you think,however,that Chinese has no way of expressing abstract ideas,you are wrong.Remember the Chinese were talking and writing about religion and philosophy long before our own civilization started.If they had no exact word for an abstraction,they used the concrete word,or words,that came nearest to the idea.So,naturally,instead of using words like institutionalization or anti-progressivism,as our thinkers do,they formed the habit of expressing ideas by metaphors,similes,and allegories,in short,by every known device for making a thing plain by comparing it with something else.
R.Flesch的这段话确实道出了汉语的一个重要特色:“实”、“明”、“直”、“显”、“形”、“象”的表达法,即措辞具体、涵义明确,叙述直接,常常借助于比喻和形象,因而比较平易、朴实(down-to-earth style)。具体说来,汉语往往采用如下的手段来表达英语的抽象词义:
一、用动词取代抽象名词。英语大量的行为抽象名词(action-nouns)表示行为或动作意义,由这类名词构成的短语往往相当于主谓结构或动宾结构。汉语若用相应的名词表达,往往显得不自然、不通顺。在英汉转换中,汉语可充分利用其动词优势,以动代静,以实代虚。如:
1)I marveled at the relentless determination of the rain.(N.Rigg)
雨无情地下个不停,我感到惊异。
2)He had surfaced with less visibility in the policy decisions.(B.Barnhart)
在决策过程中,他已经不那么抛头露面了。
3)High b1ood pressure is a contraindication for this drug.
高血压患者忌服此药。
4)These problems defy easy classification.
这些问题难以归类。
5)In handling the materials of history,each act of selection is also an act of judgment,and therefore the charge of bias is never completely answerable.
在处理历史资料时,每选一项资料就是作出一种判断,因此不能说完全没有偏见。
6)The basilica is a conglomeration of contrary styles and periods.(C.Lucas)
这座王宫把不同时期的不同建筑风格融为一体。
7)Laser is one of the most sensational developments in recent years,because of its applicability to many fields of science and its adaptability to practical uses.
激光可以应用于许多科学领域,又适合于各种实际用途。因此成了近年来轰动一时的科学成就之一。
二、用范畴词使抽象概念具体化。范畴词(category words)用来表示行为、现象、属性等概念所属的范畴,是汉语常用的特指手段。如:
1) We have winked at these irregularities too long.
我们对这些越轨行为宽容得太久了。
2)He was described as impressed by Deng’s flexibility.
据说他对邓的灵活态度印象很深。
3)What they wanted most was an end of uncertainties.
那时他们最渴望的就是结束这摇摆不定的局面。
4)He discussed greatness and excellence.
他探讨了伟大和杰出的涵义。
5)The sight of his native place called back his childhood.
见到自己的故乡,他想起了童年的情景。
6) Both we and the Chinese approached that first opening toward each other with caution, uncertainty, even trepidation. (R.Nixon:The Real War)
7) 我们和中国人双方都是怀着谨慎、不安甚至是惶恐的心情来相互探讨这初次的接触的。7)He spoke with firmness, but his face was very sad and his eyes at times were dim.
他讲话时,态度坚定,但面带愁容,时而眼神暗谈。
8)This is the day for our two peoples to rise to the heights of greatness which can bund a new and a better world.(R.Nixon)
现在该是我们两国人民为缔造一个崭新的、更加美好的世界而攀登这一伟大境界高峰的时候了。
其他例子如:complexity复杂性,relativity相对论,display显示器,corrosive腐蚀剂,jealousy嫉妒心(理),arrogance傲慢态度,eccentricity古怪行为,lightheartedness轻松愉快的心情, lithonephrotomy肾结石切除术,gravity separation重力选矿法,等等。
三、用具体的词语阐释抽象的词义。英语抽象词的涵义比较笼统、概括、虚泛,在汉语里往往找不到对应的词来表达,这时常常要借助具体的词语来解释其抽象的词义,正如Peter Newmark所说的:“As a last resort,explanation is the translation.”例如:
1)No country should claim infallibility. (“The Sino-U.S.Joint Communiqué”)
任何国家都不应自称一贯正确。
2) The stars twinkled in transparent clarity.
星星在清澈的晴空中闪烁。
3)She wondered whether her outspokenness might be a liability to Franklin.(“The Glory and the Dream”)
她怀疑自己那么心直口快,是否会成为弗兰克林的包袱。
4)This rambling propensity strengthened with years.(Washington Irving)
岁月增添,游兴更浓。
5)In America,Wang computers have become a fixture in offices throughout the country.(R.Reagan)
在美国,王安公司的电子计算机已成为各地办公室的必备之物。
6)On March 1,Nixon internationalized his approach to China.
3月1日,尼克松把他对中国问题的看法扩大到国际范围里了。
7)To the Chinese,theirs was not a civilization,but the civilization.(R.Nixon:The Awakening Giant)
中国人认为他们的文化不是文化中的一种,而是唯一的文化。
8)A foretaste of the seriousness of incivility is suggested by what has been happening in Houston.(F.Trippett)
休斯顿所发生的情况预示:如果不讲文明,将会产生何种严重的后果。
9)To help myself live without fault,I made a list of what I considered the 13 virtues.These virtues are 1 Temperance,2 Self-control,3 Silence,4 Order,5 Firmness of mind,6 Savings,7 Industry,8 Honesty,9 Justice,10 Cleanliness,11 Calmness,12 Morality,13 Humbleness.(Benjamin Franklin)
为了使自己生活中不犯错误,特列出我认为应该身体力行的13条守则。这些守则是:1.节制饮食,2.自我克制;3.沉默寡言;4.有条不紊;5.坚定信念;6.勤俭节约;7.工作勤奋;8.忠诚老实;9.办事公正; 10.衣履整洁; 11.平心静气; 12.品行高尚;13.谦虚恭顺。
四、用形象性词语使抽象意义具体化(figuration)。汉语虽较缺乏抽象词语,但形象性词语(如比喻、成语、谚语、歇后语等)却相当丰富。汉语常常借助这类生动具体的词语来表达英语抽象笼统的意义。如:
1) He was open now to charges of willful blindness.
这时人们指责他装聋作哑。
2) He waited for her arrival with a frenzied agitation.
他等着她来,急得象热锅上的蚂蚁。
3)I talked to him with brutal frankness.
我对他讲的话,虽然逆耳,却是忠言。
4)When young he quit his home and traveled to the metropolis, which he reached in a state of almost utter destitution.
年青时代,他背井离乡,徒步来到首都,几乎身无分文。
5)I ask gentlemen,sir,what means this martial array,if its purpose be not to force us to submission?(P.Henry)
请问诸位先生,摆出这种张牙舞爪的阵势,如果不是为了使我们屈服,还有什么目的呢?
6)oh,but all the rules of self-preservation were broken when we saw that little face,filled with the terror of death,being sucked downstream.(N.Rigg)
是啊! 不过一看见那张小脸带着害怕淹死的恐怖神情被激流越冲越远,我们就把明哲保身的金科玉律统统打破了。
7)All the critical twiddle-twaddle about style and form is mere impertinence and mostly dull jargon.
所有这些有关文体和体裁的蠢话,只是些风马牛不相尽够胡扯,多半是枯燥无味、玩弄术语的评论。
8)Many men have recognized the similarity of plants to the behavior of animals,and have dreamed wistfully, but forlornly, upon some method or source of rejuvenation such as Ponce de Leon sought in the Fountain of Youth several centuries ago.(“Compton’s Encyclopedia”)
许多人认为,植物的习性与动物相似,于是梦寐以求地去探求什么“返老还童”的“灵丹妙药”,就象数百年前彭斯·德·利昂在青春泉祈求仙水一样,结果只能是竹篮打水。
其他例子如:
disintegration土崩瓦解
ardent loyalty赤胆忠心
far-sightedness远见卓识
perfect harmony水乳交融
impudence厚颜无耻,不要脸
careful consideration深思熟虑
total exhaustion筋疲力尽
feed on fancies画饼充饥
with great eagerness如饥似渴
offend public decency伤风败俗
make a 1ittle contribution添砖加瓦
on the verge of destruction危在旦夕
await with great anxiety望穿秋水
lack of perseverance三天打鱼, 两天晒网
英译汉时,这种“化虚为实”的方法往往可以通行文、添文采,增加译文的可读性;汉译英时,“化实为虚”的方法则常常可以化症结、消梗滞,提高转换的可译性,如:
1)他这一阵心头如同十五个吊桶打水,七上八下,老是宁静不下来。 (周而复:《上海的早晨》)
His mind was in a turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.
2)茗烟又嘱咐道:“不可拿进园去,叫人知道了,我就‘吃不了兜着走’了。”(曹雪芹;《红楼梦》)
‘‘Don’t take them into the Garden”, Ming-yen warned him.“If they were found I’d be in serious trouble.”
3)唉,那是客臣的井蛙之见喽,所谓“情人眼里出西施”啦。(郭沫若:《屈原》)
Alas,that was owing to my ignorance,that is what is called partiality.
4)允跪而言曰:“百姓有倒悬之危,君臣有危卵之急。非汝不能救也。” (罗贯中:《三国演义》)
Wang Yun knelt saying,‘‘The people are on the brink of destruction, the prince and his officers are in jeopardy, and you, you are the only savior.”
许多形象性词语有很强的民族色彩或特定的文化涵义。这类词语往往难以对应翻译,因而不得不借助于虚化手段或其他方法,英汉互译都有这种情况。这也正如H.Sweet所指出的:“often in speaking a foreign language we seek in vain for a precise equivalent for some native word or idiom,and find that there is not any definite equivalent, and that we must content ourselves with a vague periphrasis.”。不过,这种虚化方法会冲淡甚至洗尽原文的形象色彩,使翻译成了一种“令人遗憾的艺术”。
第九章:间接与直接
(Indirect vs.Direct)
英语表达倾向于间接、婉约,汉语表达倾向于直接、明快。这一差异主要见于英语比汉语更多地使用委婉、含蓄和迂回的陈述方式。
一、委婉(euphemism)
委婉说法是用一种比较间接的方式来谈论不宜直言的人或事物,用H.W.Fowler的话来说,委婉语是“a mild or vague or periphrastic expression as a substitute for blunt precision or disagreeable truth”。人们在说话或写作时,往往会借用温和、动听的委婉语来代替粗鲁刺耳、令人不适的言辞。使用委婉语常常是为了回避或掩盖某些严酷的社会现实,或为了防止“出语伤人”,避免“有失体统”,以显得文明礼貌。英语和汉语都有委婉语,尤其见于表达有关不雅、不洁、令人生畏、令人讨厌的人或事物。如表示“死亡”,英汉的委婉语都特别多,英语有pass away,go to one’s Maker,sleep with one’s fathers,join the great majority,pay the debt of nature,be with God,go to glory,go to a better world,sleep the final sleep,cross the Great Divide,climb the golden staircase等几十种说法;汉语的说法也不少,如“逝世”、“寿终”、“作古”、“谢世”、“归寂”、“坐化”、“牺牲”、“阵亡”、“殉职”、“捐躯”、“百年”、“与世长辞”等,古代还有按等级之分的“死”,如帝王之死是“崩”、“晏驾”,诸侯之死是“薨”,大夫之死是“卒”,士之死是“不禄”等等。在提及人体的某些功能、缺陷等方面时,英汉也有各自的委婉语,如说“上厕所”,英语常用go to the restroom (washroom),use the bathroom,wash one’s hands,relieve oneself,answer a call of nature,男子可说see a man about a horse,女子可说fix one’s face,powder one’s nose等;汉语则常用“大便”、“小便”、“方便”、“解手”、“大解”、“小解”等。谈到“怀孕”时,英语可说be expecting,in a family way (美),in the family way (英),in an interesting condition;汉语可说“有喜”、“重身子”、“双身子”、“产妇”。提到“身体太胖”时,英语可说stout,on the heavy side,汉语则说“发福”。说到“老人”、“年老”时,英语常用senior citizen,elderly people,advanced in age等,汉语则用“年迈”、“年长”、“上了年纪”、“上岁数”、“年事已高”等。一般说来,在表达生活中不宜直言的事物或情况时,英汉都有各自的委婉语。
然而,与汉语相比,英语委婉语不仅数量多,使用频繁,而且涉及的范围也相当广泛。早在英国维多利亚女王时代,委婉语就十分盛行。当时的社会风尚提倡凡事都要兜圈子说话,不可直言,否则就会失礼。在现代英美社会,说话委婉、含蓄、幽默被认为是文明与礼貌的象征。近几十年来,英语委婉语大有流行之势,其使用范围已扩大到了许多领域,几乎涉及现代社会生活和公私事务的各个方面,从生、死、性、爱、老、弱、病、残、贫困、金钱、罪过、相貌、职业、种族、各种禁忌与隐私直至商业、广告、教育、政治、经济、外交、战争及其他微妙敏感而又难以直言的话题,其中许多委婉语带有浓厚的社会文化色彩,在汉语里往往没有相应的表达法。以下仅举几方面为例:
- 官方委婉语。美国政府机构汇集了各种官方英语 (officialese),文武官员职员分别盛行联邦政府官僚英语(bureaucratese)、五角大楼英语(Pentagonese)、国务院英语(State-Departmentese)、官腔英语(gobbledygook)以及各地方市政府英语(urbanbabble)。英国官方则创造新的委婉语,甚至规定某些具体词目不得在议会使用,议员不得在言谈中对各种大小官员表现出不忠不敬。在这些官方英语里,委婉语比比皆是,其中有些言辞成了政客们掩盖事实真相、欺骗选民、争取民意的一种手段。例如政府官员对于种种社会问题,常常采用委婉的方式加以粉饰:严重的失业现象,官方称之为underutilization(未充分利用人才)或human resources underdevelopment(人力资源未充分开发);生活在贫困线下的穷人,称为the underprivileged(受到不公正的待遇)或disadvantaged(机遇不佳);这些人入不敷出,债台高筑,官方谓之negative saver(负数储蓄者);他们居住的贫民区,叫做substandard housing(不合规格的住房)、inner city或central city(内城区);许多人被送进监狱,按照官方的说法,则是进入house of correction或correctional facility(改造所,教养院)。为了掩盖官方丑闻,“捏造”只是less than truthful(不大真实),“窃听”也只是intelligence gathering(收集情报),“暗杀”不过是liquidation(清算)而已。总之,政治常常成了一场玩弄委婉语的游戏,这正如George Orwell所指出的:
Things like the continuance of British rule in India, the Russian purges and deportations, the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan,can indeed be defended,but only by arguments which are too brutal for most people to face,and which do not square with the professed aims of political parties.Thus political language has to consist largely of euphemism,question-begging,and sheer cloudy vagueness.Defenseless villages are bombarded from the air,the inhabitants driven out into the countryside,the cattle machine-gunned,the huts set on fire with incendiary bullets:this is called pacification.Millions of peasants are robbed of their farms and sent trudging along the roads with no more than they can carry:this is called transfer of population or rectification of frontiers. People are imprisoned for years without trial, or shot in the back of the neck, or sent to die of scurvy in Arctic lumber camps:this is called elimination of unreliable elements.
五角大楼的委婉语也颇为独出心裁。为了掩盖侵略战争的本质,国防部官员把它称为 international armed conflict (国际武装冲突);对美国空军来说,空袭只是air support(空中增援),在原苏联领空的侦察飞行则仅仅是一种overflight (越界飞行)。军方为了尽量缩小暴力破坏的程度,把杀死敌人称为neutralize the [adversary],把伤亡称为circadian deregulation(生理节奏的反常)。为了掩盖战争中失败的真相,五角大楼的官员会说:“退却(retreat)?我们没有退却这个词,我们把这叫做‘撤出’(exfiltration)或‘战线调整’(an adjustment of the front)。我们也没有‘战败’(defeat),我们把这叫做‘战略撤退’(strategic withdrawal)。”进入核子时代以来,官方尽力掩盖核大战的威胁,委婉语的使用也达到了高潮。大量有关战略核武器的用语如 deterrence (威慑)和 first strike capability(第一次打击能力)等,从不提nuclear(核子)这个词,也不提它可能导致人类的毁灭。五角大楼英语在美国官方中甚为流行,对政府语言、公众会话和新闻媒介的影响也最为深远。
美国国务院的委婉语尽量借自五角大楼,此外,其委婉曲折的外交辞令也毫不逊色。外交官员常常尽量缩小国际紧张局势的严重性,让公众对其真正的动机和国内外问题产生模糊的印象。当两位外长举行了一次useful and businesslike meeting(有益而一本正经的会晤),其实是一次什么问题也没有解决的会晤;当两位总理进行了一次serious and candid discussion(认真而坦率的讨论),事实上是存在着重大分歧。谈及国内经济问题时,外交人员会用[deflation]或rolling readjustment(周期性重新调整)来代替depression(经济萧条)。当“雾谷”(美国国务院)的人士告诉你There is a need for more fully informed judgments(你需要更富有见识的判断),他是在耍外交辞令:You don’t know your elbow from a hole in the ground(你不能凭一知半解就下结论)。
2.职业委婉语(occupational euphemism)。在当代英美社会里,人们为了装饰门面,提高某些行业的社会地位,常常创造一些悦耳动听、冠冕堂皇的委婉语来称呼某些职称或职业,如:
sanitary engineer(=plumber)管子工
meat technologist(=butcher)屠户
prison officer(=gaoler)监狱看守
rodent operator(=rat catcher)捕鼠工
clairvoyant reader(=fortune teller)算命卖卜者
research consultant(=file clerk)档案(卷宗)管理员
funeral director(=undertaker)承办丧葬者,殡仪员
plant superintendent,[supervisor]工头,领班
aisle manager(=floorwalker)百货公司的巡视员、招待员
proprietor of loan office(=pawnbroker)当铺老板
public relations counselor(=press-agent)新闻广告员
member of the oldest profession(=prostitute)妓女
洛杉矶市政府曾通过一项决议,要求公众不要把警察称为 cop,而应采用一种较为尊敬的称呼:law enforcement officer;选美竞赛的一位获胜小姐因隐瞒婚史而被取消资格,她说:“I know in my heart I’m not a liar,I’m just a prevaricator.”使用这种委婉语大多出自一种有趣的心理,即措辞越好听,其身份便越高贵。
3.学校委婉语。教师为了不挫伤学生和家长的自尊心,也常常使用委婉语,于是,迟钝或呆笨的学生是unflamboyant(不浮夸),低能儿是subnormal(智力逊常)、exceptional(special)child(情况特殊的孩子)。纽约市一所小学曾汇编过一本小册子,作为学校向学生家长汇报学生在校表现的指南,以下是校长建议教师应该使用的一些委婉语:
Harsh Expression euphemism
(Avoid) (Use)
-
Lies撒谎 Shows difficulty in distinguishing between imaginary and factual material
-
Cheats作弊 Needs help in learning to adhere to rules and standards of fair play
3.Steals偷窃 Needs help in learning to respect the property rights of others
4.Is a bully恃强欺弱 Has qualities of leadership but needs help in learning to use them democratically
当今英美社会的委婉语正在不断推陈出新,其流行之势几乎遍及各行各业。委婉语固然可以使人们避免许多难堪的局面,减少不必要的摩擦,调节人际间的关系,但过多地使用委婉语却给人一种闪烁其词、矫揉造作的印象。许多委婉语还被用来掩盖事实,欺骗公众,影响人们直接的思想交流,因而引起了英美语言学者的深切关注。E.McMahan和S.Day在“The Writer’s Rhetoric and Handbook”一书中曾指出:
Such indirectness may seem amusing, but people also use a sinister kind of euphemism to mask realities that ought not be concealed.The CIA,for instance,substitutes the vague phrase “terminate with extreme prejudice” for the ugly word “murder”.The Pentagon refers to weapons designed to kill people as “antipersonnel implements”. Instead of “bombing”,the Air Force speaks of “protective reaction strikes”.Such transparent attempts to make killing human beings sound inoffensive are dangerously misleading.
二、含蓄(Implicitness)
英美民族富于幽默,表达时常常不把要说的话直接说出来,而是用某种间接、含蓄的方式来陈述。汉语也有含蓄表达法,但较常用作修辞手段。总的说来,汉语比较倾向于直截了当,而英语则比较常用克制陈述、间接肯定、委婉否定和婉转暗示的表达方式。
1.克制陈述(understatement);以含蓄的语气故意把大事化小(make big things seem trifle),用轻描淡写的言辞来加深对方的印象。这种保守又谨慎的表达法在英国中上阶层的口语里尤为流行。A.Maurois以下的一段话很能说明英国人含而不露的(reserved)性格:
An Englishman will say “I have a little house in the country”;when he invites you to stay with him you will discover that the little house is a place with three hundred bedrooms.If you are a world tennis-champion,say “Yes,I don’t play too badly”. If you have crossed the Atlantic alone in a small boat,say “I do a little sailing”.
这种有节制的(controlled)而又漫不经心的(casual)曲言(meiosis),往往带有幽默和冷嘲的味道:
1)It was nothing; a pinprick.
没什么。刺耳的话而已。
2)He had five sandwiches and a quart of milk for his snack.
他吃了五个三明治,喝了一夸脱牛奶,作为他的小吃。
3)He had a mansion in the country and another little place in town.
他在乡下有一座大厦,在城里还有个小地方。
英国人说话含蓄、克制、幽默,这在一篇介绍有关英国人的性格(“The English Character”)的文章中可以找到更多的例证:
In many parts of the world it is quite normal to show openly extremes of enthusiasm,emotion,passion etc.,often accompanied by appropriate gestures.The Englishman is somewhat different.Of course,an Englishman feels no less deeply than any other nationality,but he tends to display his feelings far less.This is reflected in his use of language.Imagine a man commenting on the great beauty of a young girl.Whereas a man of more emotional temperament might describe her as ‘‘an exquisite jewel”, “divine”, ‘‘precious”, the Englishman will flatly state ‘‘Um, she’s all right”. An Englishman who has seen a highly successful and enjoyable film recommends it to a friend by commenting,‘‘It’s not bad,you know,” or on seeing a breathtaking landscape he might convey his pleasure by saying,“Nice,yes,very nice.”The overseas visitor must not be disappointed by this apparent lack of interest and involvement, he must realize that ‘‘all right”,‘‘not bad”, and “nice”, are very often used as superlatives with the sense of ‘‘first-class”,“excellent”,‘‘beautiful”.This special use of language,particularly common in English, is known as understatement.
2.间接肯定(1itotes):用反对语的否定来表示肯定,这种弱式双重否定往往能产生比直接肯定更加强烈的印象,如用no rare occurrence代替a frequent occurrence,用no small代替great。汉语也有这类反语,如“未尝不可”、“难免错误”、“不虚此行”、“不无遗憾”、“没有白干”等,但较多采用直接肯定,如:
1)To my no small astonishment,I found the house on fire.
我发现房子着了火,这使我大吃一惊。
2)It serves no little purpose to continue public discussion of this issue.
继续公开讨论这一问题是大有用处的。
3)The press,Tory and Labor alike,concerned with these great questions.
英国保守党和工党两派报纸,对于这些事关重大的问题并不是漠不关心的。
4)There is, no untroubled pace in this troubled world.
这多灾多难的世界没有任何太平的乐土。
5)Martin (who was very generous with his money)ordered another glass of punch,which they drank between them,and which had no effect of making them less conversational than before.(C.Dickens)
马丁(用钱很慷慨)又叫了一杯香甜混合饮料,两人共饮,这反而使他们俩谈得更加起劲了。
6)Not infrequently an unpopular prisoner,stoned by the mob while helpless,was fortunate if he emerged with,no greater permanent injury than the loss of an eye.Even death from wounds so inflicted was not altogether unlikely or unprecedented. (Daniel Defoe)
当一个令人讨厌的囚犯无能为力时,受到暴民抛来石块的砸打, 结果只瞎了一只眼,不能不算运气。因为莫说致残,就是丧命,也不是完全不可能的,也不是完全没有先例的。
用否定之否定的方式(the ‘not un-’habit)来表达间接肯定,有时候确实比直接肯定更为准确、微妙,如用not unkindly,not unnaturally或not unjustifiably比用kindly,naturally或justifiably较为婉转,且显得有分寸。但滥用这类反语却会妨碍直接的思想交流。George Orwell曾用以下一例告诫人们要注意这种倾向:“A not unblack dog was chasing a not unsmall rabbit across a not ungreen field.”
英语还常用其他一些否定的形式拐弯抹角地表达强烈的肯定意义,汉语则往往没有相应的表达法,如:
1)He didn’t half like that girl.(=He liked her very much)
他非常喜欢那姑娘。
2)I couldn’t feel better. (=I’m feeling first-rate)
我觉得身体好极了。
3)If that isn’t what I want1 (=That is the very thing I want)
我所要的就是这个呀!
4)He can’t see you quickly enough. (=He desires to see you as soon as possible)
他很想尽快和你见面。
5)One could not be too careful in a new neighborhood.(J.Galsworthy) ’
在一个陌生的地方,越小心越好。
6)The importance of this conference cannot be overestimated.
这次会议的重要性无论怎么强调也不过分。
7)I couldn’t agree with you more.Someone’s got to be tough if you want to stay in business.
我太赞成你的看法了。想做生意,就得有铁石心肠。
- It is a wise man that never makes mistakes. (=The wisest man sometimes makes mistakes)
再聪明的人也会做错事。/智者千虑。必有一失。
英语一些含有‘‘多余否定”(pleonastic negation)的句子,也用否定的形式表达肯定的语义,如:
1)What dirty means would he not resort to!
什么卑鄙手段他都使得出来!
2)There was no knowing at what moment he might not put in an appearance,and whenever he did show,it was to storm about something.(Samuel Butler)
他在什么时候会出现,是无法知道的; 但是无论何时他一出来,总有事情使他大发雷霆。
3)If the walls of that room could speak,what an amount of blundering and capricious cruelty would they not bear witness to! (Samuel Butler)
如果这个房间的墙壁会说话,多少错误的和任性的残暴行为,它们会说出来作证啊l
4)I ran away,…I don’t know how far I didn’t run.(Katherine Mansfield)
我跑了,……也不知道跑了多远。
汉语也有类似的“多余否定”,用否定的形式来表达强调的肯定语义,如“好不+形容词”结构:“好不热闹”、“好不伤心”、“好不快乐”等。
1)街上人来人往,好不热闹!
What a busy street,with so many people coming and going.
2)他们见了面,好不欢喜。
How happy they were to see each other!
3)他好不容易才挤到台前。
He had a hard time squeezing through the crowd to get up to the platform.
3.委婉否定(indirect negation):把直接的否定变得含蓄、婉转,使口气显得温和而不武断,谦逊而留有余地。英语表示委婉否定的方法很多,常见的有如:
a)用转移否定(transferred negation)的方法使否定口气显得间接而不唐突。R.Quirk等人曾指出,“A strange feature of the syntax of subordination in colloquial English is the transfer of the negative from a subordinate that-clause,where semantically it belongs,to the main clause.”如用“I don’t think he will come”代替“I think he will not come”.说话者用否定主观看法(如否定主句的动词think)来代替否定所要表达的客观事实(宾语从句的内容),因而口气显得缓和而不生硬,汉语则较习惯于直接否定:“我想他不会来”,而不说“我不想他会来”。英语采用这类转移否定的动词一般表示相信(belief)或臆断(assumption)等意义,如 think,believe,suppose,fancy,expect,imagine,reckon等:
1)We don’t believe that Chinese is inferior to any other language in the world.
我们相信,汉语并不亚于世界任何其他语言。
2)I do not think the Council can or should remain indifferent to these most serious violations of human rights.
我认为,安理会不能也不应对这些极其严重的侵犯人权的行为袖手旁观。
3)I don not feel that we should leave them isolated in their rage.(R.Nixon)
我认为,我们不应该让他们怒气冲冲地与世隔绝。
4)I don’t suppose you need to worry.
我看你可不必担心。
5)I cannot consider the matter as in any way urgent.
我觉得此事毫不紧急。
6)Oddly enough,he didn’t seem to remember his own birthday.
说也奇怪,他似乎忘了自己的生日。
7)I do not think anyone writes so well that he cannot learn much from Fowler’s Dictionary of Modern English Usage. (W.S.Maugham:Lucidity,Simplicity,Euphony)
我认为,任何人,无论文章写得多好,也不会不从福勒的《现代英语用法辞典》中得到许多教益。
这类动词的名词化结构往往也能转移否定:
1)It is not our opinion that your proposed contract is practical.
我方认为,贵方所拟议的合同并不是切实可行的。
2)It is not our view that the speech made by your minister of foreign affairs at the Conference yesterday will be conducive to a lasting peace in that area.
我们认为,贵国外交部长昨天在会上的讲话将无助于该地区的持久和平。
b)用肯定的形式表达否定的意义。这类表达法常见于含蓄虚拟句(implied subjunctive)、反意问句(disjunctive questions)、省略句(ellipsis)、诅咒语(swear—words)和讽刺语(ironical idioms),如:
1)You could have come at a better time.
肯定式;你本来可以在更合适的时候来。
否定义:你来得不是时候。
2)As if anyone would believe that story.
肯定式:好象竞有人会相信那些话似的。
否定义;别人才不信那一套哩!
3)Are you telling me? I know all about it.
肯定式:你是在跟我说吗?我全知道了。
否定义:不用你告诉我了(还要你说呢),我全知道了。
4)I know better.
肯定式:我更加懂得。
否定义:我认为并非如此。
5)Tell your old story to someone who believes it.
肯定式:把你这套老话讲给相信它的人去听吧。
否定义:我才不信你这套老话呢。
6)Let me catch you at it again.
肯定式:(要是)让我再撞见你干这种事,(你可要吃苦头了)。
否定义:别再干这种事了l
7)I’ll see you dead before I accept your terms.
肯定式:在我接受你的条件之前。我要先看你死去。
否定义:见鬼去吧,我才不接受你的条件呢。
英语寓否定意义于肯定形式的现象比汉语常见,其形式种类也比汉语多。例如:
1)Bikini was the last thing she’d like to wear.
她最不喜欢穿比基尼式泳装。
2)I’m wiser than to believe what you call money talks.
我才不至于蠢到竟然相信你所说的金钱万能呢。
3)He would do anything he was asked to do but return to his old life.(A.Smedley)
叫他干什么他都愿意,只要不再过以往那种日子就行。
4)The peoples in this war crushed Hitlerism and shred the world from slavery.(“World War II”)
在这场战争中,各国人民推毁了希特勒主义,使世界免遭奴役。
5)What has made you so out of humor today?
今天什么事使你这么不高兴?
6)Life is far from being a bed of roses.
生活远非尽乐事。
7)The “cold war” from 1946 to about 1963,it is often forgotten,was originally seen as an admirable invention designed to keep the competition between the two great power-blocs this side of open war.
人们常常会忘却,从一九四六年直到一九六三年前后的“冷战” ——当初曾被人们看作是一个很妙的发明——使两个大国集团的竞争不致酿成公开战争。
英语还有大量的词语以肯定的形式表达否定的意义,如:fail(to come),free from(anxiety),short of(the mark),beyond(belief),above (flattery),dead to(shame),blind to(one’s faults),beneath(notice),escape(someone),removed from(self-interest),too…to…,rather than,instead of,keep…from, other(wise)than,more than,absent from,all Greek to,等等。汉语没有这类形式,常见的是用疑问句或感叹旬来表达否定意义,如:“他怎么知道?”、“谁知道!”(“鬼晓得!”)等。
4.婉转暗示(tactful implication):用含而不露的言辞留下余音,有些说法则跳过逻辑层次(1eave gaps in the development of a thought),让对方去寻味。这种表达法与英美民族富于幽默感甚有关系。汉语则往往注重于直言,把含义直接表明。如:
1)It can be worse.
婉转:还可能会更糟。
明言:还可以。/还过得去。/还算不怎么坏。/凑合凑合吧。
2)You are late for the last time.(C.Chaplin)
婉转:这是你最后一次迟到了。
明言:你被解雇了。
3)She has much more than just a pretty face.
婉转:她远远不只有一张漂亮的脸。
明言:她不仅长得漂亮,还真有两下子呢(还真有本事呢)1
4)Would you mind doing it?
婉转:你反对办这件事吗?
明言:请你办这件事,好吗?
5)A Negro could ask no more.
婉转:一个黑人不能要求更多的了。
明言:一个黑人,还能要求什么呢?
6)His accent couldn’t fool a native speaker.
婉转;他的口音不能愚弄本地人。
明言:本地人一听他的口音,便知道他是外乡人。
三、迂回(Periphrasis)
迂回是一种转弯抹角的说法,是用较多或较长的词语来表达原来几个简短的词就能说清的意思(saying things the long way round)。迂回说法原是一种修辞格,在18世纪的英国社会相当盛行,因为当时非常注意礼仪(proprieties),讲究语言优雅得体(poetic decorum)。许多著名的英美文学家也常用这种修辞格,如:Thus,Longfellow,in Hiawatha,gives the Indian name for September,the moon of the falling leaves,and Whitman in “When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom’d” calls September by its Quaker designation,the ninth month.Again,Johnson calls sunset the gentle coruscations declining day.
在现代英美社会里,许多作者为了使其言辞显得礼貌、庄重,或为了炫耀其学问深奥,或为了掩饰其含糊不清的思想,也嗜好这种闪烁其词、婉转曲折的表达法(circumlocution).政客、律师、官员和说话罗唆的人尤其喜欢这种迂回的方式。H.w.Fowler指出这些人使用迂回说法往往是出自“a feeling that plain words sort ill with the dignity of office.a politeness that shrinks from blunt statement,and,above all,the knowledge that for those engaged in the perilous game of politics,and their servants,vagueness is safer than precision”.这种思想倾向也就导致了矫揉造作、累赘冗长的文风(stilted and verbose style),如喜用迂回费解的“detrimental to the visual amenities of the locality”来代替简单明了的形容词“unsightly”(不雅观的)。
迂回说法与英语的名词化和抽象化密切相关。汉语用词比较具体、明确,力戒晦涩、虚泛,反对故意拐弯抹角,因而往往没有象英语那样迂回曲折的表达法。伦敦一家晚报曾报道英美拟为北约组织联合研制一种可折翼的军用飞机,该报引用了英国外交部发言人关于两国领导人为此举行会晤的一段话:
The object of this visit is a pooling of knowledge to explore further the possibility of a joint research effort to discover the practicability of making use of this principle to meet a possible future NATO requirement,and should be viewed in the general context of interdependence.
这段冗长的话无非是想说:
This visit is to find out whether we can,together,develop the fo1dingwing plane for NATO.
此次访问是为了探讨我们两国是否能够为北约组织合作研制一种可折翼的飞机。
在英语口语和书面语里,间接迂回的说法相当流行,试比较:
1)迂回:Will you be good enough to advise me whether I should accept the invitation?
平易:Please tell me whether I should accept the invitation.
请您告诉我是否应该接受这项邀请,好吗?
2)迂回:I have endeavored to obtain the required information.
平易:I have tried to find out what you wanted to know.
我已经尽力去打听你想要知道的消息。
3)迂回:It will be observed from a perusal of these documents.
平易:You will see by reading these documents.
你读一读这些文件就会明白的。
4)迂回:The cost may be upwards of a figure rather below $ 10 million.
平易:The cost may be nearly$1o million.
费用大概是一千万美元左右。
5)迂回:In London there reigns a complete absence of really reliable news.
平易:There is no reliable news in London.
伦敦没有可靠的消息。
6)迂回:I’m terribly sorry to interrupt you,but 1 wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little.
平易:Would you please lower your voices a little?
请你们讲话小声一点,好吗?
许多自以为有高度文化修养的人喜欢装腔作势、小题大做,因而也特别嗜好那种玩弄文字的行话(jargon)。这类浮夸的言辞让人感觉枯燥无味,甚至莫明其妙,必须花些工夫才能悟出其真正的用意。H.P.Guth在“Words彻d Ideas”一书中曾对此有过深刻的论述:“Much inflated diction results from a writer’s using two highbrow words where one lowbrow word would do.Jargon reflects the desire to make the trivial seem important.It cultivates an impressive pseudo-scientific air by using indirect,impersonal constructions;by b1owing up simple ideas through abstract or roundabout diction,and by seeking out technical-sounding Latin and Greek terms.…Jargon is the unnecessary use of technical language in order to borrow the prestige of science and scholarship.”试比较:
1)行话:In the 1 980s the main determinant of rising educational expenditure was the increasing number of young people using the education system.
直言:The main reason for the higher cost d education in the 1980s was that more young people were being educated.
八十年代教育费用增加了,其主要原因是更多的年青人受到了教育。
2)行话:This will call for a sustained co-coordinated effort over a substantial period.
直言:A sustained coordinated effort will be needed.
这需要持久的协作。
3)行话:Procedures were instituted with a view toward the implementation of the conclusions reached.
直言:We started to put the ideas into practice.
我们已经开始把这些想法付诸实施。
4)行话:Careful consideration of relevant data is imperative before the procedure most conducive toward a realization of the desired outcomes can be determined.
直言;Look before you leap.
三思而后行。
爱好行话的人喜欢兜圈子说话,常常把一个简单的想法或平常的事物说得玄之又玄。例如以下一段话,说来说去,无非是要宣布该公司准备搬迁其办公地点:
A drastic reappraisal and reassessment of our present position on a number of issues,including the location of our offices,is being given meaningful consideration in order to maximize our opportunities and those of our clients in a National Capital filled with flux.
又如以下一段话,作者为了避免陈述过于直截了当,因而挖空心思,费尽心计,采用了委婉、反语和迂回的表达方法:
In communicating these data to your organization after fullest consultation with all my colleagues also concerned,I would certainly be less than truthful if I were to say that this has occasioned the Ministry(and this Section in particular)no little difficulty but that the delay is nevertheless regretted.
作者本来想要表达一个简单的意思:“I am sorry we could not send you this information sooner,but we have found this a very difficult case”,结果适得其反:这段话给对方留下的印象是“提供这些信息并不困难,作者对于延误并不表抱歉”。
这类迂回说法往往是思想懈怠、思维松弛的结果,有些则是故弄玄虚、卖弄文才造成的。
上述的“委婉”、“含蓄”和“迂回”的陈述方式,以及前面几章所讨论的“物称”、“被动”、“静态”和“抽象”的表达方法,都可以看出英语的总体表现风格倾向于“间接”。这种间接的倾向往往导致表达形式的复杂化(complexity)。
为了使措词显得客气、礼貌、文雅,讲英语的人常常采用委婉、含蓄、迂回等间接表达法,而讲汉语的人则往往使用敬辞和谦辞。敬辞与谦辞在文言文时代尤其盛行,现代汉语虽较不常用这类庄重的套语,但表示尊敬和自谦的说法仍然常见。
敬辞用来褒扬对方或与对方有关的人、事物或行为,以表示恭敬,如:
贵姓your name 令尊your father 高见your opinion 拜访call on
贵国your country 尊夫人your wife 府上your home 大作your writing
惠顾your patronage光临your presence.奉告inform 请教 ask for advice
久违I haven’t seen you for ages.
谦辞用来贬抑自己或与自己有关的人、事物或行为,以表示谦虚,如:
鄙人I,me 拙著my writing 舍亲my relative
小女my daughter 愚见my opinion 过奖flatter
贱恙my illness 寒舍my home 敝校my school
这类敬辞和谦辞反映了中国人比较独特的人际态度,英语往往没有相应的表达法,因而一般采用较为直接或较为婉转的说法:
1)贱姓李,请问尊客贵性?
I’m Li.Could I have your name?
2)久仰,久仰。
I’ve heard so much about you.
3)不知高见以为何如?
1 wonder if you would be kind enough to enlighten us on this matter./May I have your advice?
4)如蒙光顾,无任欢迎。
Your patronage is cordially invited.
5)老大爷。您今年高寿?
May I ask how o1d you are,Grandpa?
6)明日是父亲大人八十大庆。
Tomorrow is Dear Father’s eightieth birthday.
7)拜托您捎个信给她。
Would you be good enough to take a message to her?
8)详情容后奉告。
I’ll give you the details later.
9)奉访未晤,甚怅。
Much to my regret you weren’t at home when I called.
10)恕不奉陪。
Sorry I won’t be able to keep you company.
11)我拜读了您的大作。
I had the pleasure of perusing your work.
12)敬请光临。
We request the honor of your presence.
13)不想误触犯了官人,望乞恕罪,高抬贵手!(施耐庵:《水浒》)
We had no thought of intruding upon your attention and hope you will overlook our offence.
旧时流行的许多敬谦辞,如今已比较少用。现代中国人一般倾向于使用白话,以较为直接的方式来表达敬人或自谦,如“您真行,我差远了”、“不敢当”、“哪里哪里,一点也不好看”等等。
为了避免说话粗鲁无礼,讲汉语的人还常用一些措词谦和的婉言。如反对别人的意见,说成“请再斟酌”,“不敢苟同”;表示“随你的便”,说成“悉听尊便”;向别人提意见,常说“这是我的一点不成熟的意见,未必正确,仅供参考。”有些婉言采用假设、商询的语气,如不说“你马上来”,而说“您是不是马上来一趟?”不说“你把我的行李拿上去”,而说“您能不能帮我把行李拿上去?”不说“你去办这件事”,而说“请您办这件事,好吗?”,如此等等。中国是文明古国,礼仪之邦。在交际中,对别人讲究尊重,对自己讲究谦逊,不亢不卑,不谄不骄,这是中华民族的一个优良传统。
总的说来,汉语比较注重直言、简明、畅达。委婉、含蓄、迂回的陈述方式在汉语里远远不如英语那样流行。中国历代文论家都比较推崇平实、明快的语言风格。孔子说:“辞达而已。”孔安国说:“凡事莫过于实,辞达则足矣,不烦文艳之辞。”东汉王充在《论衡·自纪》中也说:“口则务在明言,笔则务在露文。”说话宜使人一听就懂,文章宜让人一看就明白,给人以明朗、舒畅的感觉。“五四”运动以后,反对文言文、提倡白话文的结果,动摇了文言文的统治地位,白话文逐渐占了上风。这对现代汉民族的共同语——普通话的形成和发展起了关键性的作用。近几十年来,我国汉语学界极力提倡“准确、鲜明、生动”的文风,反对老八股、洋八股、党八股和帮八股,反对迂回曲折、晦涩难懂的文风。现代中国社会抛弃了旧社会许多不必要的繁文缛节和虚伪客套,不提倡曲曲折折、吞吞吐吐的说话,要求在有礼貌和互相尊重的前提下直截了当地交流思想。“汉语崇尚直质、忌晦涩,倡导明白晓畅、开宗明义与中国历史上文人畏于文字之嫌而株连很有关系。这里似乎不仅是个语言问题,当然与我国近几十年来提倡大众化的宣传出版政策也有关系。操汉语的人口覆盖面极为辽阔,人数众多,但教育水平很不齐。这是汉语言特别是书面语宜显不宜隐、宜直不宜曲、宜明不宜暗的极其重要的历史的也是现实的事实依据。旧另一方面,正因为“中国历史上文人畏于文字之嫌而株连”,所以也常常有话不敢直说,屈原的《离骚》就是这方面的例证。
第十章:替换与重复
(Substitutive vs.Reiterative)
一般说来,除非有意强调或出于修辞的需要,英语总的倾向是尽量避免重复。讲英语的人对于随意重复相同的音节、词语或句式往往感到厌烦。许多英语作文教师甚至告诫学生“Never use the same word or write the same thing twice in a sentence unless you are repeating intentionally for emphasis or for clarity.”当然这种说法未免过分,但其目的是提醒学生不要忘了可以用替换的办法来避免不必要的重复。Fowler兄弟在“The King’s English”一书中也指出:
Even when the repetition is a part of the writer’s original plan,consideration is necessary before it can be allowed to pass:it is implied in the terms ‘rhetorical’or significant repetition that the words repeated would ordinarily be either varied or left out;the repetition,that is to say,is more or less abnormal,and whatever is abnormal may be objectionable in a single instance,and is likely to become so if it occurs frequently.
例如以下的各种重复在英语里都是不正常的,试比较:
1)音节重复
原句:Commercials seldom make for entertaining and relaxing listening.
改写:Commercials seldom entertain and relax the listener.
原句:Close examination of the results of the investigation led to a reorganization of the department.
改写:Close study of the results of the inquiry led to a reorganization of the department.
2)词语重复
原句:We listened to an account of the customs of the inhabitants of the village.
改写:We listened to an account of the villager’s customs.
原句:Dr.Brown seriously maintains that in the near future opium-smoking will scourge in France.
改写:Dr.Brown seriously maintains that in the near future opium-smoking will be as grave ad the absinthe scourge in France.
原句:Even to borrow money is wrong,according to Kant,because if everyone did borrow money, there would be no money left to borrow.
改写:Even to borrow money is wrong,according to Kant,because if everyone did this, there would be no money left to borrow.
3)句式重复
原句:Now is the time for everyone to come out to vote, for everything depends upon this election.All are against corruption,and so they should vote the Reform ticket.This is not a foolish thing,for the voters can elect anyone they want.But the people must turn out heavily,for if they do there is little doubt that they will elect the men they want.
改写:Everybody should turn out to vote in this election,for the triumph of the Reform party means the end of corruption in office.If the voters will only come to the polls in large enough numbers,they can surely elect the men they wish to see in power.
4)意义重复
原句:He asked the divisions to give their mutual cooperation to the project.
改写:He asked the divisions to cooperate on the projeet.
原句:The bachelor’s degree is a necessary requisite for matriculation.
改写:a)The bachelor’s degree is necessary (or: a requisite) for matriculation.
b)The bachelor’s degree is required for matriculation./Matriculation require$the bachelor‘s degree.
原句:May I be permitted to state that the activities of the Club are not limited only to aeronautics?
改写:a)May I be permitted to state that the activities of the Club are not limited to aeronautics?
b)May I be permitted to state that the activities of the Club are not directed only to eronautics?
意义重复又如以下词组:
advance planning still remains
exactly identical entirely complete
foreign imports assembled together
repeat again audible to the ear
throughout the entire summer dash quickly
英语文体学家批评这类重复是粗心的(careless)、笨拙的(clumsy),因而也是令人厌烦的(boring)。在能明确表达意思的前提下,英语宜尽量采用替代、省略或变换等方法来避免无意图的(unintentional)重复。这样不仅能使行文简洁、有力,而且比较符合英语民族的语言心理习惯。
一、替代(Substitution)
用替代的形式(pro-forms)来代替句中或上文已出现过的词语或内容(shared words and content),这是用英语说话或写作的一项重要原则。R.Quirk等人指出:Like ellipsis, substitution is a device for abbreviating and for avoiding repetition.In this second respect it is similar to the use of lexical equivalents that are not identical repetition.Across sentences,substitution seems to be optional,and for stylistic reasons.Within sentences, it is sometimes obligatory.Most of the substitutes or pro-forms within sentences are also used across sentences.
这些替代的形式主要有:
1.名词性替代(nominal substitution)。用代词或某些名词来取代名词(词组),这类词如:第三人称代词、指示代词(this,that,these,those)、关系代词(who,whom,whose,that,which)、连接代词(who,whom,whose,what,which)、不定代词(all,each,every,both,either,neither,one/ones,none,little,few,several,many,mueh,other,another,some,any,no)以及名词 enough,half,the same,the kind,the sort,the former,the latter等。英语常用这类替代词来避免重复,汉语则较常重复其所代替的名词(词组),如:
1)Translation from English into Chinese is not so easy as that from English into French.
英译汉不如英译法容易。
2)A chemical change is one in which the structure of particles is changed and a new substance is formed.
化学变化是改变粒子结构、形成新物质的一种变化。
3)Electrical charges of a similar kind repel each other and those that are dissimnar attract.
同性电荷相斥。异性电荷相吸。
4)He hated failure;he had conquered it all his life,risen aboveit, and despised it in others.
他讨厌失败,他一生中曾战胜失败,超越失败,并且藐视别人的失败。
5)If she did not speak with Rebecca on the tender subjeet,she compensated herself with long and intimate conversation with Mrs.Blenkinsop,the house keeper,who dropped some hints to the lady’s-maid,who may have cursorily mentioned the matter to the cook,who carries the news,I have no doubt,to an the trademen. (‘‘Vanity Fair”)
她不好和丽贝卡说起这个难出口的问题,只好和管家娘子白兰金素太太秘密地长谈了好几回。管家娘子露了些口风给上房女佣人。上房女佣人也许约略地对厨娘说了几句,厨娘一定又去告诉了所有做买卖的。
英语常用代词,汉语少用代词,因而较常重复,这在汉译英时也可以看出来:
1)我们的民族再也不是一个被人侮辱的民族了。
Ours is no longer a nation subject to insult and humiliation.
2)我们提倡和平共处的原则,这项原则目前在世界上已越来越得人心了。
We have advocated the principle of peaceful co-existence,which is now growing more and more popular in the world.
3)一定的文化(当作观念形态的文化)是一定社会的政治和经济的反映,又给予一定社会的政治和经济以巨大的作用和影响。
Any given culture(as an ideological form)is a reflection of the politics and economics of a given society,and the former in turn has a tremendous effect and influence on the latter.
2、动词性替代(verbal substitution)。用替代词来取代谓语动词(词组),这类替代词主要有:代动词do,复合代动词do so,do it,do that,do this,do the same,以及替代句型so+do+主语,so+主语+do,so+be+主语,so+主语+be,so+will+主语,so+主语+will等。汉语也有替代的方式,但也常常重复其所代替的动词(词组),如:
1)The Amaricans are reducing their defence expenditure this year. I wonder if the Russians will do too.
美国人今年已在削减国防开支,我怀疑俄国人也会这样做。
2)In any case work does not include time,but power does.
在任何情况下,功不包括时间,但功率却包括时间。
3)You don’t want to lag behind.Neither does she.
你不愿意落后,她也不愿意落后。
4)You should help him since you have ptomised to do so.
你答应了要帮助他就应当帮助他。(或:你应当帮助他,这是你答应了的。)
5)He never really succeeded in his ambitions.He might have done.one felt,had it not been for the restlessness of his nature.
他雄心勃勃,但从未如愿以偿。人们觉得,要不是他那贪得无厌的本性,他也许会有所作为的。
6)Mary speaks Chinese,and that very well.
玛丽会讲汉语,而且讲得很好。
3、分句性替代(clausal substitution)。用替代词so或not来取代充当宾语的that从句,用if so或if not来取代条件从句,用as来取代分句的一部分,等等。汉语也有替代的方式,但为了使表达正确、清楚,也常常重复其所代替的词语,如:
1)People believe that the Amarican team wiIl win the football game.Peter thinks so,but I believe not.
人们认为美国队将赢得这场足球赛,彼得也是这样想的,我却认为并非如此。
2)Factories known to produce components for missiles and submarines are being camouflaged,as are missile launching and test sites throughout the USSR.(“Reader’s Digest”,Dec,1977)
人们所知道的生产导弹部件和潜艇部件的工厂,都进行了伪装。苏联全国各地的导弹发射和试验场地,也都进行了伪装。
3)中国人从来就是一个伟大的勇敢的勤劳的民族,只是在近代落伍了。这种落伍,完全是被外国帝国主义和本国反动政府所压迫和剥削的结果。
The Chinese have always been a great,courageous and industrious nation;it is only in modern times that they have fallen behind.And that was due entirely to oppression and exploitation by foreign imperialism and domestic reactionary governments.
4)你没有搞好,我是不满意的,得罪了你就得罪了你。
Yon have done a poor job and I am not satisfied,and if you feel offended, so be it.
5)成绩有两重性,错误也有两重性。
Achievements have a dual charaeter,and so have mistakes.
6)一个人的工作,究竟是三分成绩七分错误,还是七分成绩三分错误,必须有个根本的估价。
We must have a fundamental evaluation of a person’s work and establish whether his achievements amount to30 per cent and his mistakes to 70 per cent,or vice versa.
总的说来,英语多用代称,以避免重复;汉语少用代称,多用实称,因而较常重复。汉语代词的使用远远不如英语广泛。人称代词的性别之分,大约只是1917年以后的事,显然是受了英语的影响。“他”、“她”和“它”除了因发音相同而不便在口语里使用之外,在同一句子或语段中经常出现这类代词不仅会使指称混乱,还会令人感到不是中国话的味儿。王力说,“中国现代语里不大用得着中性的‘它’,尤其是对于非动物。……英语里有许多‘it’字译成中国语的‘它’都非常不顺口,……至少是觉得非常刺耳。因此,咱们对于‘它’和‘它们’(尤其是后者)以谨慎运用为佳,如果希望读者不讨厌的话。” 英语的代词在汉译时常常采用还原、复说或省略的办法加以处理,如:
1)Flartery js more dangerous than hatred because it covers the stain which the other causes to be wiped out.
阿谀比怨恨更危险,因为阿谀掩饰了污点,而怨恨却能使人消除污点。
2)Gathering facts,confirming them,suggesting theories,testing them,and organizing findings—this is all the work of science.
收集事实并加以论证,提出理论并加以检验,以及归纳整理研究成果——这就是科学工作的全部内容。
3)The analogue computer determines its quantity by measuring how much while the digital computer determines its quantity by counting how many.
模拟计算机计出量的大小,数字计算机算出量的多少。
4)Halliday put his pipe down,crossed his hands behind his neck,and turned his face towards the window.(“The Apple Tree”)
哈利德放下烟斗,两手交叉着放在脖子后面,转过头去看窗子。
5)He was well-favoured,bright,a good dancer,a fair shot and a fine tennis player.He was an asset at any party.He was lavish with flowers and expertsive boxes of chocolate,and though he entertained little,when he did it was with an originality that pleased.(W.S.Maugham)
他英俊,又聪明,跳舞跳得不错,打枪不算坏,网球也打得很好。什么宴会都少不了他。鲜花和高价的大盒巧克力糖任意买来送人。虽则很少请客,请起来倒也别致有趣。
在口语里,汉语尤其少用代词,试比较:
1)“What will you do when the war is over if it is over?”He asked me.“Speak grammatically!”
“I will go the States.”
‘‘Are you married?”
“No.but I hope to be.”
“The more of a fool you are,’’he said.He seemed very angry.“A man must not marry.”
“Why must not a man marry?” (E.Hemingway)
“真有那么一天,仗打完了,你要干点什么?”少校问我,“注意,语法要正确!”
“回美国。”
“结婚了吗?”
“没有,但很想。”
“你更蠢了,”他看上去很恼火。“男人根本不该结婚。”
“为什么男人不该结婚?”
2)It was Louisa who insisted that he should be sent to St Paul’s and she always had him out here for his Christmas vacation.(“The Razor’s Edge”)
路易莎非把他送到圣保罗教堂不可,可总是把他接出来过圣诞节。
二、省略(omission)
省略和替代一样,也是避免重复的一种常用手段。两者常常互相替换使用,有的语言学家甚至把省略称为“零位替代”(zero-substitution)。英语省略的类型很多,有名词性省略、动词性省略、分句性省略;有句法方面的省略,也有情景方面的省略。在并列结构中,英语常常省略前面已出现过的词语,而汉语则往往重复这些词语,如:
1)A man is called selfish,not for pursuing his own good,but for neglecting his neighbor’s.
说一个人自私自利,并非因为他只图自己的利益,而是因为他不顾邻人的利益。2)Ambition is the mother of destruction as well as of evil.
野心不仅是罪恶的根源,也是毁灭的根源。
3)Work with,and not against,nature.
要顺应自然工作,不要违反自然工作。
4)Reading exercises one’s eyes;speaking,one’s tongue;while writing,one’s mind. (F.Bacon)
阅读训练人的眼睛,说话训练人的口齿,写作训练人的思维。
5)One cannot learn to produce a sound from an explanation onIy,or get a correct idea of a flavour from a description:a sound must be heard,a colour seen,a flavour tasted,an odour inhaled.
人不能只从讲解中学会发音,也不能光靠看说明而真正体会出某种滋味来:声音必须耳闻,颜色必须目见,滋味必须口尝,气味必须吸入。
6)Thales thought water was the beginnjng of everything;Anaximenes,air;Heraclitus,fire.
泰勒斯认为水是万物之始;阿那克西米尼认为空气是万物之始, 赫拉克利特则认为火是万物之始。
英语常常承前省略相同的谓语动词或谓语动词词组的一部分;汉语则较常承前省略相同的主语而重复相同的动词,试比较:
1)I belong to you and you(belong)to me.
我属于你,你也属于我。
2)白求恩大夫一到前线,(他)就立刻开始工作。
Dr.Bethune set to work as soon as he came to the front.
汉语习惯于重复词语,有时是为了保持语法的正确,有时是为了促成结构的整齐、匀称;有时既是语法的要求,也是修辞的需要。如:
1)太阳的热把水蒸发成云;如果云被吹到较凉的地方,天就会下雨;如果被吹到较暖的地方,云就会消散。
The sun’s heat evaporates water,forms cloud;if cloud is blown to a cooler place,rain falls;if to a warmer place,it disappears.
2)近朱者赤,近墨者黑。
Association with the good can only produce good,with the wicked, evil.
3)一个和尚挑水吃,两个和尚抬水吃,三个和尚没水吃。
One boy is a boy,two boys half a boy,three boys no boy.
三、变换(Variation)
上述的替代和省略也是变换的手段,此外,英语还常用同义词替代、近义词复现和句式变化等方法来避免重复。汉语也讲究用词造句形式的多样化,以避免单调、枯燥,但英汉表现方法不尽相同。
英语同义词替代的现象常见于用不同的名称来表示同一人或事物,即所谓“同名异称法”。例如,在同一篇新闻评论里,作者用了以下六个称呼来避免重复提及英国前首相撒切尔夫人:M rs.Thatcher,she,the Prime Minister,the Iron Lady,the leader of the Conservative Party,the first woman Prime Minister;小说里提及某一人物时,作者有时用其姓,有时用其名,有时用其昵称,有时则另起称呼;听众从体育比赛的实况广播中常常听到诸如The Redskins emerged victorious,the Colts romped to victory,the Cowboys slaughtered the opposition,the Dolphins clobbered their opponents等同一意思的变换说法。对于这类同名异称,读者或听众往往是根据上下文或特定的背景知识才明白其所指的。中国人较不习惯于这种名称替换法,因而较常重复同一名称。
近义词复现常常是概括词(generic term)和下属词(specific word)之间的互相替换(hyponymy),如用the furniture来代替 table,用the animal来代替horse,用the planet来代替Mars,以回避重复。如:
1)John’s bought himself a new Ford.He practically lives in the car.
约翰给自己买了一部新的福特牌汽车,他几乎就住在这部汽车里。
2)I don’t know where to stay when I arrive in New York.I have never been to that place.
我不知道到了纽约要住在哪里,我从来就没有去过那个地方。
3)The monkey’s most extraordinary accomplishment was learning to operate a tractor.By the age of nine,the monkey had learned to solo on the vehicle. (R.Quirk)
这只猴子最了不起的技能是学会驾驶拖拉机。到了九岁的时候,这只猴子已经学会单独表演驾驶拖拉机了。
汉语一般较少采用英语的这类变称,而较多重复同一名称,以下各例也可以说明这种情况:
1)非洲人民正在为争取非洲的彻底解放进行着艰巨的斗争。
The people of Africa are waging a hard struggle to win the complete emancipation of the continent.
2)另外一种方法是化学方法。
Another method is the chemical process.
Another approach is the chemical method.
3)电子管通常用来放大,而真空管则是电子管的另一名称。
An electron tube is generally used for amplification,and vacuum tube is another name for this device.
4)他就是凭这个骗人的资格,他就是有这个骗人的资格。
His credentials are deception,that’s exactly what he has.
英语比较注重表达形式的多样化,力戒无意义的重复。例如以下一段话,不仅词语重复太多,句式也缺少变化,因而显得累赘又乏味:
Shakespear’s plays arc notable for their moral neutrality.For example,in Julius Caesar, Shakespeare is not wholly sympathetic to Caesar.Shakespear does not sympathize with Brutus, Antony, or Octavius. Caesar is killed in the middle of Julius Caesar.Then Shakespear directs the audience’s attention to Brutus,Antony, and Octavius. As a result,Shakespear gives Julius Caesar no single hero. Shakespear gives an objective view of the charaeters throughout Julius Caesar by alternating between favorable and unfavorable assessments.Shakespeare does not give final approval to the favorable assessment or unfavorable assessment.
这段话若用替代、省略和变换的方法加以改写,即会比较符合英语的表达习惯:
Shakespeare’s plays are notable for their moral neutrality.For example,in Julius Caesar Shakespeare is not wholly sympathetic to Caesar,Brutus,Antony,or Octavius.Caesar is killed in the middle of the play and the audience’s attention is then directed to the other main characters.As a result.Julius Caesar has no single hero.Throughout the play Shakespeare maintains an objective view of the characters by alternating between favorable and unfavorable assessments,without giving final approval to either.
然而,变换要适度,不能给人以炫耀言辞的感觉;替代也要明确,不应引起语义的含混。如果为了追求“优雅的变换”(elegant variation)而不顾表达的清晰和准确,那就达不到语言交际的的。例如上面这段话,若改写成以下这种样子,那就未免过分了:
Shakespeare’s plays are notable for their moral neutrality.For example,in Julius Caesar_,the playwright_ is not wholly sympathetic to Caesar.The great bard does not sympathize with Brutus,Antony,or Octavius.Caesar is killed in the middle of the play.Then the “swan of Avon” directs the audience’s attention to the other main characters.As a result,the master of dramatic poetry gives Julius Caesar no single hero.…
这里作者为了讲究措辞多变,故意使用了“the great bard”、“the swan of Avon”和“the master of dramatic poetry”这些优雅而含糊的名称来替代莎士比亚的名字,读者未免感到过于矫揉造作。R.Quirk等人指出,“Repetition of lexical items is normally avoided, but ‘elegant variation’can become as disconcerting as repetition when the variation is obtrusive.Hence we more usually resort to the syntactic device of substitution by pro-forms,such as pronouns.’’ 嗜好“优雅变换”的人(variationists)为了避免重复而不惜玩弄文字,往往还出自于这样一种心里,即 “Who’ll know I’m educated if I use easy words?”
总的说来,英语比较忌讳重复,因而常用替代、省略和变换的表达方法;相比之下,汉语则比较习惯于重复,因而常用实称、还原和复说的表达方法。除此以外,汉语倾向于重复还广泛地表现在词语调配、句式安排和篇章结构等各个方面。
汉语的重复倾向与其语音文字的特点有密切的关系。汉字属音节文字,一个汉字代表一个音节,音节结构分声、韵、调三个组成部分,元音在音节中处于主要地位,配上不同声调的升降抑扬,使得汉语具有铿锵动听的音乐美。古代汉语单音节占优势,现代汉语双音节占优势。双音节化在汉语里是一种常见的修辞现象。“偶语易安,奇字难适”,讲究词语之间偶数音节的组合,如单音节词宜与单音节词相配,双音节词宜与双音节词相配,读起来顺口,听起来悦耳,写起来顺手,能给人以匀称、整齐而又平稳、舒畅的感觉。如“停止用”、“共同管”就不如“停止使用”、“共同管理”或“停用”、“共管”这样来得整齐、匀称,“脸发烧,心慌,不知所措”就不如“脸发烧,心发慌,不知所措”这样来得和谐、顺畅。汉语有大量的联绵词,即双声词(如:美满meiman、伶俐lingli)和叠韵词(如:从容congrong、堂皇tanghuang),还有叠音词(如:冉冉ranran、渐渐 jianjian)、合成词和四字格(如:若隐若现、千姿百态、如花似锦、甜言蜜语)。音节和字义的协调、和谐及匀称往往促使词语和句式成双成对,如对偶和对联就是中国人自古以来所喜闻乐见的语言形式。汉语的这种均衡美反映了中国人的美学心理,因而也是用词造句的一大原则。任意违反这项原则,往往会使表达显得别扭。如“他实事求是,不尚说空话,……总是把荣誉归于别人,重担自己挑。他苦在人先,享乐在别人后面”就不如“他实事求是,不尚空谈,……总是把荣誉归于别人,把重担加于自己。他苦在人先,乐在人后”这样来得均衡、自然。
汉语讲究均衡美的特点往往促成用词造句的重复倾向。重复,从广义上说,包括两大类:一类是有意运用相同、相似或相对的词语或句式,以突出或强调所要表达的意思,增添文采,给对方留下深刻的印象,这是积极的修辞方式,有时也是必要的语法手段,如重叠、反复、对偶和排比等;另一类是使语言罗嗦、累赘的叠床架屋现象,这是运用语言的大忌,应该极力避免。
英语和汉语都有重叠、反复、对偶和排比的表达形式,但相比之下,汉语的重复无论在使用范围、出现频率和表现方式的多样性等方面都远远超过英语。
一、重叠(Reduplication)
汉语单音节文字的特点便于字和词的重叠。重叠构词不仅使得词语音节匀称、形式整齐,而且赋予词语以新的意义和感情色彩。许多名词、数量词、动词和形容词都有重叠的格式,如:
1. 名词重叠,表示‘‘每个”、“所有”、。许多”、“小”、。杂”或某种感情色彩等:
AA:人人 天天 事事 年年 声声 字字 道道 杠杠 家家
AABB:男男女女 世世代代 风风雨雨 沟沟洼洼 日日夜夜
2.数量词重叠,表示“每个”、“逐个”、“许多”或某种感情色彩等:
BB:个个 件件 排排 块块 条条 本本 篇篇 重重 层层
ABB:一杆杆 一块块 一桩桩 一道道 一滴滴 一朵朵
ABAB:一次一次 一包一包 一颗一颗 一步一步 一丛一丛
AABB:千千万万 三三两两 三三五五
3.动词重叠,表示动作的轻微、反复、完成、连续、轻松、随便等:
AA:说说 听听 谈谈 想想 吃吃 瞧瞧 歇歇 试试 摸摸
A一(了)A:走一走 看一看 避一避 笑了笑 摇了摇 翻了翻
ABAB:考虑考虑 救济救济 收拾收拾 整理整理 休息休息
AABB:进进出出 摇摇晃晃 吵吵嚷嚷 勾勾搭搭 吞吞吐吐
A着A着、A了A了:听着听着 看着看着 老了老了 完了完了
4.形容词重叠,表示程度的加重、加深、加强、减轻或爱憎、厌恶等情绪:
AA:红红 高高 厚厚 小小 远远 深深 长长 紧紧 细细
AABB:干干净净 奇奇怪怪 零零落落 歪歪斜斜 花花绿绿
ABAB:笔直笔直 冰凉冰凉 通红通红 雪白雪白 崭新崭新
5.附加式重叠,主要用来使表达形象、生动,其格式尤其丰富多彩:
AAX:毛毛雨 月月红 呱呱叫 团团转 步步高 蒙蒙亮
XAA:水汪汪 羞答答 笑眯眯 亮晶晶 白茫茫 圆滚滚
AAXY:花花世界 心心相印 娓娓动听 历历在目 脉脉含情
XYAA:衣冠楚楚 烈火熊熊 忧心忡忡 风雨潇潇 杨柳依依
A里AB:罗里罗嗦 胡里胡涂 妖里妖气 古里古怪 慌里慌张
6.偏正并列式、动宾并列式、主谓并列式及其他形式的重叠:
ABAC:假情假义 难兄难弟 有声有色 没大没小 所作所为
ABCB:以毒攻毒 爱理不理 大闹特闹 好说歹说 一拖再拖
ABA:面对面 心连心 手拉手 肩并肩 背靠背
此外,象声词也常常采用重叠的形式,如:哗哗、嗡嗡、呼呼、呷呷、呜呜、喃喃、突突、咕咕、叭叭叭、轰隆隆、叮叮当当、劈劈拍拍、哗啦哗啦、咕嘟咕嘟,等等。这类词有很大的可创性,有的纯粹摹拟声音,有的表示声音的一个自然段落,有的表示声音的连续或重复,有的表示声音的杂乱。
广泛运用叠字叠词以表达各种意义是汉语的一大特色。一在英汉转换中,适当地运用汉语的重叠形式可以加强译文的表现力,使之更加符合汉语的习惯:
1)The road was packed with a noisy crowd of men and women, who were selling and buyingall kinds of things.
路上挤满了男男女女,他们熙熙攘攘,正在买卖各种各样的东西。
2)Walking up and down the empty room,he stopped here and there to touch or look.
房间空空荡荡,他走来走去,这儿停停,那儿停停,东摸摸,西瞧瞧。
3)She hoped she had mixed enough fact and fiction in her story to mislead him.
她希望所说的情况真真假假,足以使他胡里胡涂。
4)Huge,riven and blazing wrecks that only minutes before had been majestic aircraft carriers settled into the glittering Pacific.
几分钟前,这些航空母舰还是那么威风凛凛,不久就变成豁裂残断、烈火熊熊的庞大残骸,渐渐沉入了波光粼粼的太平洋。
5)Scared by a sun more savage than their native land’s,their wounds suppurated and hosts of whining flies fell upon them.
这儿的阳光比他们本国的强烈得多,在毒辣辣的太阳烤灼下,他们的伤口化脓,嗡嗡的苍蝇成群成群地汇集在伤口上。
6)There were no sounds but that of the booming wind upon the stretch of tawny herbage around them,the crackling wheels,the tread of the men,and the footsteps of the two shaggy ponies which drew the van.
那时候只听见车轮辚辚,脚步沙沙。拉车的那两匹鬃毛蓬松的小马,蹄声得得,四周一片橙黄色的野草,风声呼呼。除此之外,再也听不到别的声音了。
7)They read the afternoon through,while the cold November rain fell from the sky upon the quiet house. (R.Bradbury:Fahrenheit)
深秋,冷雨霏霏,屋里静悄悄的。他们看了一个下午的书。
8)Mr Kirsch,having lost all his money by this time,followed his master out into the moonlight,where the illuminations were winking out. (Vanity Fair)
基希先生这时输得两手空空,便跟着主人走出屋来; 月光下,彩灯闪闪烁烁,渐渐灭了。
英语也有音节重叠的现象,但远远不如汉语普遍。这主要是因为英语词的音节参差不齐,不具备上述汉语语音文字的特点。英语的重叠只有一个格式,即AA式,另有两个变式,即改变元音的重叠式和改变辅音的重叠式,如:
1.AA式:
bye-bye,goody-goody,tut-tut,pooh-pooh,craw-craw,dik-dik,din-din,chow-chow, yo-yo,ha-ha,haw-haw,ta-ta,hula-hula,chin-chin,ga-ga
2.元音变式:
ping-pong,zig-zag,seesaw,flip-flop,tick-toek,tip-top,clip-clop,criss-cross,dilly-dally,ding-dong,shilly-shally,dingle-dangle,rift-raft,tick-tack,wishy-washy,jingle-jangle
3.辅音变式;
walkie-talkie,teeny-weeny,hoity-toity,hubble-bubble,bow-wow,higgledy-piggledy,hoteh-poteh,hocus-pocus,razzle-dazzle,rub-a-dub,piggy-wiggy,pell-mell,clap-trap
英语叠音词一般属谐音或拟声现象,有许多词来自儿语,通常用于口语、俚语或非正式文体,其构词能力和使用范围都受到很大的限制。汉语的叠字叠词不仅是音节的重叠,而且有词法和句法的因素。重叠在汉语里是一种重要的构词方法,也是一种常用的语法和修辞手段。李清照的千古绝旬“寻寻觅觅,冷冷清清,凄凄惨惨戚戚”,连用七对叠字,无论再美的译文,也无法象汉语那样重叠:
I seek but seek in vain。
I search and search again:
I feel so sad,so drear,
So lonely.without cheer.
二、重复(Repetition)
有意重复使用同一词、语甚至句、段,用来强调作者的意思,加强语气和情感,以取得更好的表达效果,这在修辞学上称为“反复”(repetition或reiteration)。反复可分为连续反复和间隔反复,英语还再分为首语反复(anaphora)和尾语反复(epiphora)。从用词方面看,反复、联珠(anadiplosis)、回环(chiasmus)、对照(antithesis)、部分对偶和排比(parallelism)都有重复的现象。这些方面的重复,汉英大体是相同的。如:
1)沉默呵,沉默呵!不在沉默中爆发,就在沉默中灭亡。(鲁迅:《纪念刘和珍君》)(连续反复与间隔反复)
Silence,silenee!Unless we burst out,we shall perish in this silence!
2)吃饭防噎,行路防跌。(对偶)
When eating take heed that you do not choke,when walking take heed that you do not fall.
3)我为人人,人人为我。(回环)
One for all find all for one.
4)大处着眼,小处着手。(对照)
Keep the general goal in sight while taking hold of the daily tasks.
5)我们一定要坚持下去,一定要不断地工作,我们也会感动上帝的。这个上帝不是别人,就是全中国的人民大众。全国人民大众一齐起来和我们一道挖这两座山,有什么挖不平呢?(毛泽东:《愚公移山》) (联珠)
We must persevere and work unceasingly,and we,too,will touch God’s heart.our God is none other than the masses of the Chinese people.If they stand up and dig together with us,why can’t these two mountains be cleared away?
汉语这类修辞方式,英语也有,例如:
1)Scrooge went to bed again,and thought and thought and thought it over and over.(Charles Dickens)(连续反复)
斯克鲁吉又上床去了,他想来想去,想呀想,想个没完。
2)She stood by the window and 1ooked out sadly at a grey cat walking along a grey fence in a grey backyard.(间隔反复)
她站在窗子跟前,闷闷不乐地瞅着外面灰蒙蒙的后院,一只灰色的猫正在灰色的篱笆上行走。
3)A smile would come into Mr Pickwick’s face;the smile extended into a laugh,the laugh into into a roar,and the roar became general.(Charles Dickens:Pickwick Paper)(联珠)
皮克威克先生的脸上会浮现出一丝微笑,微笑逐渐变成大笑,大笑变成狂笑,狂笑勾起一阵哄堂大笑。
4)Crafty men contemn studies;simple men admire them;and wise men use them.(F.Bacon)(对照)
狡猾的人轻视学问;愚味的人羡慕学问, 聪明的人利用学问。
5)The jail might have been the infirmary,the infirmary might have been the jail. (Charles Dickens)(回环)
监狱可以成为病房,病房也可以成为监狱。
6)Men perish,but man shall endure;lives die but the life is not dead.(A.Swinburne:Hymn of Man)(排偶)
人要死亡而人类永存,寿命有限而生命不绝。
然而,汉语的重复现象远比英语普遍。英语的重复一般是修辞性的(rhetorical),而汉语的重复除了修辞的需要之外,还往往出自语法的要求。重复可分为两大类:词语的重复和意义的重复。汉语的“词复”现象大体可以归纳为八种:
1.主语与表语重复,即主语与判断语重复,其格式是“甲是甲”或“甲是甲,乙是乙”,表示对于别的判断的排斥,如:
不懂就是不懂,不要装懂。We must not pretend to know when we do not know.
我的头发没了,可我还是我呀! My hair is gone,but I’m just the same.
敌是敌,友是友,必须分清敌我的界限。
A friend is a friend,a foe is a foe,one must be clearly distinguished from the other.
有缺点的战士终竟是战士,完美的苍蝇也终竟是苍蝇。(鲁迅:《战士和苍蝇》)
The fighter for an his blemishes is a fighter,while the most perfect flies are only flies.
其他例如:“一是一,二是二,不能弄虚作假”,“假的总是假的,谬误终究还是谬误”,“他的是他的,我送的是我送的”等等。英语也有这类重复,但不如汉语常见,如:
East is East,and West is West.(R.Kipling)
东方是东方,西方是西方。
Now is now.and then was then.
此一时也,彼一时也。/现在是现在,当时是当时。
2.主语与宾语重复,即宾语就是主语加“的”字,表示互不相干,类似英语的“do your own part”,如:
他说他的。我干我的。 Let him say what he likes;I’ll just get on with my work.
你们讨论你们的,我不参加了。 You just go on with your discussion.1 won’t take part.
其他例如:“我死我的,与你何干?”,“他睡他的,别叫醒他”,“咱们只管乐咱们的”等等。
3.主语与谓语重复,即主语就是谓语加“的”字。这种格式连用两个(以上)相同的结构,有列举的性质,如:
火车上看书的看书,聊天的聊天。 on the train some were reading and some chatting.
这几双鞋,大的大,小的小,我都不能穿。 Some of these shoes are too big and others too small.None of them fits me.
我们一些旧衣服和旧家具,当的当了,卖的卖了。(吴敬梓:《儒林外史》)
Our old clothes and few sticks of furniture have been pawned or sold.
其他例如:“陪过来一共四个,死的死,嫁的嫁”,“走的走,跑的跑,还顾主子的死活吗?”,“她们姐妹们病的病,弱的弱”等等。英语较常是用替代和省略来回避重复。
4.主语与宾语的修饰语重复,一般表示评估。如:
穷也有穷的好处。
Poverty has its advantage.
要知道大国有大国的策略,小国也有小国的路线,各取所好而行。
We should know that big powers have their strategies while small countries also have their own lines.And each follows the policy to its liking.
其他例如:“大家庭有大家庭的难处”,“不大说话的又有不大说话的可疼之处”等等。英语一般用替代来避免重复。
5.重复谓语,这种格式可分为三小类:
a)含“虽”、“虽然”的意思,重复的谓语之间插入“是”、“却”等字:
这东西旧是旧,可还能用。
Yes,it’s old,but it can still be used.
去是去,但是得晚一点儿去。
I’m certainly going,but I’ll be a little late.
忙是忙,可大家很愉快。
We are busy to be sure,but everyone is very happy.
b)含“即使”、“甚至”的意思,重复的谓语之间插入“也”、“都”等字:
你是个大人物,平素请也请不到。
You’re a big shot and won’t come at ordinary times even if you’re invited.
这个我连想都没想过。 I haven’t even thought of it.
她连吃都不吃了,我还有什么办法?
She even won’t eat anything at all,what can I do for her?
c)含“容忍”、“无所谓”的意思,重复的谓语之间插入“就”字:丢了就丢了吧,以后小心点。
Ifit’s lost,it’s lost.Just be more careful ftom now on.
想喝就喝,想吃就吃,别客气了。
Drink or eat as you like.Please make yourself at home.
6.重复带宾语的及物动词。这是因为及物动词与补语之间不能被宾语隔开而必须重复这个及物动词,如不能说“他踢足球得很好”,而必须说“他踢足球踢得很好”,又如:
他读书读得很多。
He has read a lot.
他这场病呀,准是洗冷水澡洗出来的。
His illness this time was caused by a cold bath.
若不重复动词,必须把宾语置于动词或主语之前,如“他书读得很多”或“书他读得很多”。英语没有这类重复。
7.重复“也好”、“也罢”之类,置于并列的谓语形式之后,表示假设或选择:
写信也好,打电话也好,打电报也好,反正你得通知他。
You must let him know somehow,whether by letter,by telephone or by telegram.
刮风也罢,下雨也罢,他都坚持跑步。 He keeps up running whether it’s windy or rainy.
8.重复“各”或“自己”,英语则往往使用代词以回避重复:
各吹各的号,各唱各的调。 Each blows his own bugle and sings his own tune./Each does things in his own way.
他自己打自己。 He beat himself.
汉语词语的重复现象还不止上列几类。汉语讲究音节文字的整齐、匀称,常常运用相反相成、对立并联等表达形式,因而词语的重复几乎俯拾即是:
1)不是你去,就是我去。
Either you or I am to go.
2)我不会游泳,也不会溜冰。
I can’t swim nor skate.
3)什么难学不难学,我保证学会。
No matter how hard it is.I’ll learn how to do it.
4)人家的果实归人家,咱们无论如何也不能要。
Let others enjoy the fruit of their own labour; anyway we won’t take it from them.
5)他们几乎爱讲什么就讲什么,全然不顾什么谨慎不谨慎了。
Their language was almost unrestrained by any motive of prudence.
6)去就去,怕什么?
I’ll go,what do I have to be afraid of?
7)饱汉不知饿汉饥。
The well-fed don’t know how the starving suffer.
除了词语的重复之外,汉语还常常运用相似、相对或不同的词语来重复同一意义。汉语“意复”的现象尤其常见于四字成语和谚语,如:
成语的意复:
称心如意satisfactory 发号施令issue orders
惊天动地earth-shaking 穷凶极恶nefarious
唉声叹气moan and groan 胡言乱语talk nonsense
奇装异服outlandish clothes 南腔北调a mixed accent
日新月异ever changing 粗制滥造crudely made
深仇大恨deep hatred 奇谈怪论strange tale
千方百计by hook or crook 街谈巷议street gossip
谚语的意复:
1)单丝不成线,独木不成林。
one strand of silk doesn’t make a thread; one tree doesn’t make a forest.
2)人以类聚,物以群分。
Birds of a feather flock together./Like attracts like.
3)看菜吃饭,量体裁衣。
Fit the appetite to the dishes and the dress to the figure./
Act according to actual circumstances.
汉语意复的现象还常见于运用由两个意义相同或相近的词根构成的合成词,如:观看(watch)、使用(use)、古老(ancient)、树木(trees)、衣裳(clothing)、道路(road)、孤独(1onely)、善良(kind- hearted)、略微(slightly)等。汉语一些连接词或副词的连用也常有意义的重复,英语则不习惯于相应的重复,如:
1)问题虽然小,但很典型。
The question is smal’l but typical.
2)只有依靠群众,才能做好工作。
Only by relying on the masses can you do your work well.
3)除了水稻以外,我们还种棉花和小麦。
Besides rice,we grow cotton and wheat.
4)这种态度是非常有害的,特别是对于干部,害处更大。
Such an attitude does a great deal of harm,particularly among the cadres.
英语的“词复”和“意复”现象通常见于一种惯用语,称为“成对词”(words in pairs),H.W.Fowler则把它比作“连体双胎”(siamese twins)。这种词组用and或or把两个形式相同或意义相同、相近、相关或相反的词连接起来,表示一个完整的概念。如:
同词重复,一般表示过程或加重语气,有些词义即为原有词义的引申:
on and on连续不断地
by and by不久
out and out彻底的
over and over反复地,再三地
again and again再三地,重复地
neck and neck并驾齐驱,不分上下
such and such某某,这样那样的
through and through彻头彻尾地
by 1ittle and little逐渐地,一点一点地
同义重复,通常起强调作用,也可以使概念较为准确:
each and every每个 aches and pains各种疼痛
toss and turn翻来复去 kith and kin亲戚朋友
lord and master主宰者 rack and ruin毁灭,荒废
pick and choose挑挑捡捡 toil and moil辛辛苦苦地干
puff and blow喘气,气急 chop and change反复无常
fair and square光明正大 rags and tatters衣衫褴褛
此外,英语还有一些词复的格式,如:day after day,arm in arm,face to face,side by side,word for word等。
以上英汉的词复和意复都属于正常的语言现象。这类重复一般都可归入构词法、惯用法、语法或修辞等范畴之内。
汉语的意复还常常产生一些赘余的现象,即把包含在词语里的意思用另外的词语复说一遍。有些说法虽已司空见惯,但若细加推敲,就会发现其中有的词语是多余的。如:
从小出生was born
他所担任的工作his work
非常酷似be exactly like
另外还有in addition to
脑子里想了想think over
用鼻子闻了一下take a smell at
嘴里异口同声地谴责condemn with one voice
不切实际的幻想illusion;fancy;fantasy
毫无根据的诽谤slander;calumniate;libel
万分危急的紧要关头at this moment when everything hung by a thread;
at this very critical moment
广泛地普及教育popularize education
要善于把理论与实践很好地结合起来Be good at integrating theory with practice.
从前有人写过一首打油诗,就是用来讽刺这种叠床架屋的语言现象的:
一个孤僧独自归,关门闭户掩柴扉,半夜三更子时分,杜鹃谢豹子规啼。
这类意复现象,除了在特定的语境里,为了加重语气或对照对比,可以这么用,如“心里想的,眼里看的,嘴上说的,手上干的,要结合起来”,在一般情况下,都属语多赘余。汉语赘余现象似乎比英语多些,英译时往往要采用省略或融合的方法加以调整。
叠床架屋是一种不良的语言现象,英汉皆然。英语的意复(tautology)也有赘余(redefiners或overlapping meanings),如以下的说法都是应该避免的:
past history joint partnership cooperate together
expired and terminated while at the same time each separate incident
consensus of opinion circle around completely finished
final conclusion red in color erroneous fallacies
continue to remain the reason is because one after another in succession
I tentatively suggest in my own personal opinion may possibly go
in two equal halves symptoms indicative of
赘余的现象常常是滥用修饰语的结果。对此,E.Gowers曾作过尖锐的批评:
It has been wisely said that the adjective is the enemy of the noun.If we make a habit of saying ‘The true facts are these’,we shaIl come under suspicion when we profess to tell merely ‘the facts’. If a crisis is always acute and an emergency always grave,what is left for those words to do by themselyes?If active constantly accompanies consideration,we shall think we are being fobbed off when we are promised bare consideration, If a decision is always qualifted by definite,a decision by itself becomes a poor fillered thing.If conditions are customarily described as prerequisite or essential, we shaIl doubt whether a condition without an adjective is really a condition at all.An unfilled vacancy may leave us wondering whether a mere vacancy is really vacant.If a part is always an intergral part or a component part there is nothing left for a mere part except to be a spare part.
三、对偶与排比(Parallelism)
汉语讲究音节匀称和词句整齐的倾向集中地表现在修辞上的对偶和排比。
对偶,是把结构相似、字数相等、意义相类、相对或相反的两个语句对称地排在一起,使之互相补充、互相映衬、互相对照,以提高表达效果。对偶综合了汉语语音、文字、词汇和语法诸因素所形成的特点,是富有中国气派的一种修辞方式,其应用范围相当广泛,对联、诗词、成语、谚语、广告、标题、散文、小说甚至公文,都可见到这类形式,如:
1)墙上芦苇,头重脚轻根底浅;山间竹笋,嘴尖皮厚腹中空。(明朝解缙)
The reed growing on the wall-top-heavy,thin-stemmed and shallow of root;The bamboo shoot in the hills-sharp-tongued,thick-skinned and hollow inside.
2)横眉冷对千夫指,俯首甘为孺子牛。(鲁迅:《集外集·自嘲》)
Fierce-browed,I coolly defy a thousand pointing fingers,Head-bowed,like a willing ox I serve the youngsters.
3)画虎画皮难画骨,知人知面不知心。(施耐庵:《水浒》)
In drawing a tiger,you show its skin,but not its bones;while watching a man,you can see his face,but not his inmost feelings.
4)少壮不努力,老大徒伤悲。(《汉乐府民歌·长歌行》)
Laziness in youth spells regret in old age.
5)下笔千言,离题万里。
A thousand words from the pen in a stream,but ten thousand li away from the theme.
6)良药苦口利于病,忠言逆耳利于行。
Bitter medicine cures sickness,unpalatable advice benefits conduct.
汉语的许多四字成语常常采用对偶的形式,如:
能工巧匠skilful craftsman/deft hand
天涯海角the remotest corners of the earth
花言巧语fine words/sweet words/blandishments
东倒西歪leaning/unsteady/tottering
厚今薄古stress the present,not the past
南辕北辙act in a way that defeats one’s purpose
亲痛仇快sadden one’s own folk and gladden the enemy
求同存异seek common ground while reserving differences
排比,是把三个以上结构相似、意思相关、语气一致的词组或句子排列成串的修辞方式。排比结构在汉语里也十分常见,政论文、科技文、文艺文及其他文体都有这类表达形式,如:
1)啊。我思念那洞庭湖,我思念那长江,我思念那东海。那浩浩荡荡的无边无际的波澜呀!邓浩浩荡荡的无边无际的伟大的力呀!那是自由,是跳舞,是音乐,是诗。(郭沫若:《屈原》)
Ah,I 1ong for the Dongting Lake,I long for the Yangtze River,I long for the Eastern Sea, that mighty and boundless expanse of waves,that mighty and boundless expanse of strength! That is 1iberty,dancing,music,poetry 1
2)这里叫洋八股废止,有些同志却还在提倡。这里叫空洞抽象的调头少唱,有些同志却硬要多唱。这里叫教条主义休息,有些同志却叫它起床。(毛泽东:《反对党八股》)
The abolition of foreign stereotypes was demanded in that report,yet some comrades are still promoting them.Less singing of empty,abstract tunes was demanded,yet some comrades are obstinately singing more.The demand was made that dogmatism be laid to rest,yet some comrades are telling it to get out of bed.
3)他暗暗地使天地变异,却不敢毁灭这个地球;暗暗地使生物衰亡,却不敢长存一切尸体;暗暗地使人类流血,却不敢使血色永远鲜浓;暗暗地使人类受苦,却不敢叫人类永远记得。(鲁迅:《淡淡的血痕中》)
In secret,he causes heaven and earth to change,but dare not destroy this world.In secret。he causes living creatures to die,but dare not preserve their dead bodies.In secret,he causes marlkind to shed blood。but dare not keep the bloodstains fresh for ever.In secret,he causes mankind to suffer pain,but dare not let them remember it for ever.
英语也有类似汉语对偶的平行结构(parallelism),如:
1)Penny wise,pound foolish.
小处精明,大处浪费。/小事聪明,大事糊涂。
2)Grasp all,lose all.
样样都要,样样失掉./贪多必失。
3)Nothing ventured,nothing gained.
不入虎穴,焉得虎子。
4)No bees,no honey;no work,no money.
没有蜂就没有蜜,不做工就没有钱。
5)Long absent,soon forgotten.
别久情疏。
英语这类平行结构虽类似汉语的对偶,但很难实现象汉语严式对偶那样整齐匀称:严式对偶不但要求字数相等、结构相同,而且要求语音平仄协调、字面对应而不重复。英语的平行结构有时近似汉语的宽式对偶(即不求平仄协调,允许字面重复),有时相当于汉语的排比,如:
1)It was the best of times,it was the worst of times;it was the age of wisdom,it was the age of foolishhess;it was the epoch of belief,it was the epoch of incredulity;it was the season of Light,it was the season of Darkness;it was the spring of hope,it was the winter of despair;we had everything before us,we had nothing before us;we were all going direct to Heaven,we were all going direct the otherway.(Charles Dickens:A Tale of Two Cities)
这是最美好的时光,这也是最恶劣的时光,这是智慧的年代,这也是愚蠢的年代;这是有信仰的时期,这也是抱怀疑的时期;这是光明的季节,这也是黑暗的季节, 这是富有希望的春天,这也是充满绝望的冬天;我们面前万物皆有,我们面前也一无所有;我们都径直走向天堂,我们也都径直走向地狱。
2)This is our hope.This is the faith with which I return to the South.With this faith we will be able to hew out of the mountain of despair a stone of hope.With this faith we will be able to transform the jangling discotds of our nation into a beautiful symlohony of brotherhood.With this faith we will be able to work rogerher,to pray together,to struggle together,to go to jail together,to stand up for freedom together,knowing that we will be free one day.(Martin Luther King:,Have a Dream)
这就是我们的希望。这就是我带回南方的信念。怀着这个信念,我们能够把绝望的大山凿成希望的磐石。怀着这个信念,我们能够将我国种族不和的喧嚣变为一曲友爱的乐章。怀着这个信念,我们能够一同工作,一同祈祷,一同奋斗,一同入狱,一同为争取自由而斗争, 因为我们知道我们终将得到自由。
3)We find ourselves rich in goods,but ragged in spirit;reaching with magnificent precision for the moon,but falling into raucous discord on earth.We are caught in war,wanting peace.We’re torn by division,wanting unity.We see around us empty liyes,wanting fulfinment.We see tasks that need doing,wanting for hands to do them. (R.Nixon: Inaugural Address)
我们物质丰富,但精神贫乏;我们以超卓的准确程度登上了月球,但却陷入了地球上的一片混乱。我们卷入了战争,没有和平。我们四分五裂,没有团结。我们看到周围的人生活空虚,没有充实的内容。我们看到许多工作需要完成,但却没有人手去做。
英语词的音节参差不齐,语句的结构长短不一,又比较忌讳重复,因而很难获得汉语式的对偶和排比;汉语讲究音节文字的整齐、匀称,又习惯于字、词、语、句的反复,因而对偶和排比的结构十分常见。在很多情况下,英语采用替代、省略、变换、融合、归纳、引申和其他变通的方法来回避象汉语那样的对偶、排比和反复。试比较:
1)人急造反,狗急跳墙。
Desperation drives men to rebel and a dog to jump over a wall.(省略重复词desperation drives)
2)人有失误,马有失蹄。
It is a good horse that never stumbles.(只译形象义,省略引申义)
3)人多力量大,柴多火焰高。
There is strength in numbers:more logs make a bigger fire.(译引申义和形象义,回避对偶式)
4)壶小易热,量小易怒。
A 1ittle pot is soon hot.(只译形象义,省略引申义)
5)取之不尽,用之不竭 [inexhaustible]
6)沉鱼落雁之容,闭月羞花之貌
be lovely enough to outshine the moon and put the flowers to shame/the beauty would put the flowers to shame (省略重复的形象义)
7)龙生龙,凤生凤,老鼠生儿打地洞。
Like father,like son./Like begets like.(淡化、引申含有民族色彩的形象义)
8)用点画成线,用线画成平面,用平面画成立体。
With points you can make a line;with lines,planes;with planes,solids.(省略重复词,回避排比式)
9)一个地方有一个地方的全局,一个国家有一个国家的全局,一个地球有一个地球的全局。
A locality has its own over-all interest,a nation has another and the earth yet another.(替代重复的词语)
汉语有大量结构对偶的四字词组,前后意义重复,词语对称,英语一般没有相应的表达形式,因而英译时往往采用省略或融合的方法,如:
1)他虽然带着五七分酒意,却装做十分醉的,前颠后偃,东倒西歪。(施耐庵:《水浒》)
He was not really drunk,but pretended he was intoxicated and staggered along.
2)其中有一篇,大意仿佛说,中国戏是大敲、大叫、大跳,使看客头昏脑眩。(鲁迅:《社戏》)
One chapter made the point that the Chinese opera is so full of gongs and cymbals,shouting and jumping,that it makes the onlookers’ heads swim.
3)他嘴里一时甜言蜜语,一时有天没日,疯疯傻傻。(曹雪芹:《红楼梦》)
He can be all sweet words one minute and ranting and raving the next.
4)下面看的人提心吊胆,心惊肉跳。(吴强:《红日》)
The people watching below are tense and trembling with their hearts in their mouths.
5)你这丧尽天良,狼心狗肺的人!该干刀万剐的人呀,还我孩子!(杨沫:《青春之歌》)
Have you no heart? No sense of right? You are worse than a wolf---you deserve to be hacked to pieces! Give me back child!
6) 唬得老龙王胆战心惊,小龙子魂飞魄散。(吴承恩:《西游记》)
7) The old Dragon King was trembling with fright, and the little dragons were scared out ofthier wits.
汉语排比的句式在当代报刊和政论性文章中十分常见。有人统计,在一篇正式发表的工作报告里,“进一步”用了十八次,“坚决”用了二十六次,“积极”用了十五次,“充分”用了十八次,“认真”用了二十五次,“大力”用了十五次,“搞好”、“办好”、“抓好”、“做好”等共用了六十一次,由这类词语构成的排比式语句和段落在文中也成串出现。如果按照字面译成英语,有时每页里都要重复多次,显然不符合英语的表达习惯。因此,英译时往往要根据其含义,既适当地保留原文的强调语气,又考虑英语“忌讳重复”的倾向,采用省略重复的词语、融合意复的词语、变换或替代相同的词语等方法,以回避过多的重复。如:
进一步
1)进一步证明这个理论是正确的
It has further borne out the correctness of this theory.
2)进一步加强社会主义法制
strengthen the socialist legal system
3)进一步提高分清是非的能力
enhance the ability to distinguish between right and wrong
4)进一步加强军民团结
cement the ties of unity between the army and the people
5)进一步调动他们的积极性
bring their initiative into full paly
6)进一步掌握社会主义经济建设的规律
attain a better grasp of the laws governing socialist economic construction
7)号召全国人民进一步团结起来
call upon the whole nation to unite more closely
搞好、抓好、做好、办好、抓紧
1) 认真搞好经济建设
do a good job in economic construction
2) 认真搞好设备的补缺配套
make sure that complete sets of equipment are available
3) 认真搞好现有企业的挖潜、革新、改造
be good at tapping the potential of the existing enterprises and at renovating and transforming them
4) 认真抓好林区建设
a real effort must be made to develop the forest regions.
5) 认真办好现有国营农场
run the existing state farms well
6) 认真做好思想教育
stress must be laid on ideological education.
7) 必须把粮食抓紧,必须把棉花抓紧,必须把布匹抓紧。
We must pay close attention to grain,cotton and cotton cloth.
现代汉语动词“搞”、“抓”和“弄”的运用有扩大的趋势。如今凡事往往都用“搞”,如:搞生产(engage in production)、搞运动(carry on a campaign)、搞调查研究(do some investigation and study)、搞个计划(draw up a plan)、把问题搞清楚(get a clear understanding of the question)、把思想搞通(straighten out one’s ideas)、别搞那么多菜了(Don’t make so many dishes),等等。有时“搞”字用多了,就换个“抓”字,如:抓革命(grasp revolution)、抓个点(concentrate on work at selected units)、抓这项工作(be in charge of this work),等等。有时“抓”字不好用,就换个“弄”字,如:去弄点水来(Go and get some water)、把事情弄糟(make a meess of things)、你弄错了(You’ve got it wrong)、你这一说,反把我弄糊涂了(Your explanation only made me feel more puzzled than ever),等等。用“搞”、“抓”、“弄”这类“万能动词”,有时确能传神,在不少情况下也是其他动词所难以代替的。但这类“神通广大”的多义词如果用多了,不仅加强了汉语的不必要的重复倾向,也给翻译带来了许多困难。这是语言学界一个值得研究的问题。
总的看来,汉语表达讲究匀称,用词倾向于重复,这与汉语语音文字系统的特点有关,也与汉人的思维方式和美学心理有关。自古以来,汉人就有一种追求均衡、讲究对称的心理。中国传统哲学认为“阴阳”是通贯于一切事物的两个对立面。《老子》说:“万物负阴而抱阳。”《易传》作者进一步提出“一阴一阳之谓道”的学说,把阴阳交替看作是宇宙的根本规律。中国古代思想家还提出“五行相生相胜”的原理。“相生”意味着相互促进,如“木生火,火生土,土生金,金生水,水生木”等;“相胜”即“相克”,意味着互相排斥,如“水胜火,火胜金,金胜木,木胜土,土胜水”等。这些观点体现了万物对立统一的辩证法。中国传统的哲学思想对汉人的思维模式、美学心理和表达习惯产生了深刻的影响。汉人对人对事对物往往讲究偶式对应,如生与死,天与地,日与月,等等。中国的传统建筑装饰,从北京故宫直至普通民宅,都讲究布局的均衡、对称:中堂的对联是一边一幅,门口的石狮是一边一只,大门是两扇对开;在生活中,送礼讲成双,吉利求偶数;在汉语里,音、义、词、语、句的重叠反复、成双成对、对立并联和对偶排比充分地体现了汉人这种追求均衡、讲究对称的心理。